This is Part 2 of a two-part review summarising current knowledge on biomarkers of atherosclerosis. Part 1 addressed serological biomarkers. Here, in part 2 we address genetic and imaging markers, and other developments in predicting risk. Further improvements in risk stratification are expected with the addition of genetic risk scores. In addition to single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), recent advances in epigenetics offer DNA methylation profiles, histone chemical modifications, and micro-RNAs as other promising indicators of atherosclerosis. Imaging biomarkers are better studied and already have a higher degree of clinical applicability in cardiovascular (CV) event prediction and detection of preclinical atherosclerosis. With new methodologies, such as proteomics and metabolomics, discoveries of new clinically applicable biomarkers are expected.

1st Department of Internal Medicine Faculty of Medicine Comenius University Bratislava Slovakia

2nd Department of Surgery Center for Vascular Disease Faculty of Medicine Masaryk University and St Anne's University Hospital Brno Czech Republic; Department of Internal Medicine Brothers of Mercy Hospital Brno Czech Republic

Department of Cardiology National Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases and Slovak Medical University Bratislava Slovakia

Department of Functional Sciences Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timisoara Romania; Center for Translational Research and Systems Medicine Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timisoara Romania

Department of Medical Biology Jessenius Faculty of Medicine Comenius University in Bratislava Martin Slovakia; Department of Experimental Carcinogenesis Division of Oncology Biomedical Center Martin Jessenius Faculty of Medicine Comenius University in Bratislava Martin Slovakia

Department of Nutrition Faculty of Nursing and Professional Health Studies Slovak Medical University Bratislava Slovakia; Department of General Medicine Faculty of Medicine Slovak Medical University Bratislava Slovakia

Faculty of Medicine University of Oviedo Central University Hospital of Asturias Oviedo Spain

Faculty of Pharmacy University of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia

General Hospital Murska Sobota Murska Sobota Slovenia

Independent Researcher Mosjøen Norway

Institute of Histology and Embryology Faculty of Medicine University of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia

Jewish General Hospital and Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research Montreal Canada; Department of Cardiology The Adelaide and Meath Hospital Dublin Incorporating the National Children Hospital Dublin Ireland

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