The formulation, characterization, and anticipated antibacterial properties of hemp seed oil and its emulsions were investigated. The oil obtained from the seeds of Cannabis sativa L. in refined and unrefined form was characterized using iodine, saponification, acid values, and gas chromatography, and was employed for the preparation of stable oil-in-water emulsions. The emulsions were prepared using pairs of non-ionic surfactants (Tween, Span). The effects of the emulsification method (spontaneous emulsification vs. high-intensity stirring), hydrophilic lipophilic balance (HLB), type and concentration of surfactant, and oil type on the size and distribution of the emulsion particles were investigated. It was found that the ability to form stable emulsions with small, initial particle sizes is primarily dependent on the given method of preparation and the HLB value. The most efficient method of emulsification that afforded the best emulsions with the smallest particles (151 ± 1 nm) comprised the high-energy method, and emulsions stable over the long-term were observed at HBL 9 with 10 wt % concentration of surfactants. Under high-intensity emulsification, refined and unrefined oils performed similarly. The oils as well as their emulsions were tested against the growth of selected bacteria using the disk diffusion and broth microdilution methods. The antibacterial effect of hemp seed oil was documented against Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus aureus subsp. aureus. The formulated emulsions did not exhibit the antibacterial activity that had been anticipated.

Centre of Polymer Systems Tomas Bata University in Zlin nam T G Masaryka 5555 760 01 Zlin Czech Republic

Department of Environmental Protection and Engineering Faculty of Technology Tomas Bata University in Zlin nam T G Masaryka 5555 760 01 Zlin Czech Republic

Department of Fat Surfactant and Cosmetics Technology Faculty of Technology Tomas Bata University in Zlin nam T G Masaryka 5555 760 01 Zlin Czech Republic

Polymer Centre Faculty of Technology Tomas Bata University in Zlin 760 01 Zlin Czech Republic

See more in PubMed

Callaway J.C. Hempseed as a nutritional resource: An overview. Euphytica. 2004;140:65–72. doi: 10.1007/s10681-004-4811-6. DOI

Grotenhermen F., Russo E. Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. 1st ed. Integrative Healing Press; New York, NY, USA: 2002.

Jones K. Nutritional and Medicinal Guide to Hemp Seed. Rainforest Botanical Laboratory; Gibsons, BC, Canada: 1995.

Raikos V., Neacsu M., Morrice P., Duthie G. Physicochemical stability of egg protein-stabilised oil-in-water emulsions supplemented with vegetable powders. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2014;49:2433–2440. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.12565. DOI

Dunford N.T. Specialty Oils and Fats in Food and Nutrition. 1st ed. Woodhead Publishing; Cambridge, UK: 2015. 2-Hemp and flaxseed oil: Properties and applications for use in food a2-talbot, geoff; pp. 39–63.

Hazekamp A., Fischedick J.T., Díez M.L., Lubbe A., Ruhaak R.L. Comprehensive Natural Products II. 1st ed. Elsevier; Oxford, UK: 2010. Chemistry of Cannabis; pp. 1033–1084.

Acosta E. Bioavailability of nanoparticles in nutrient and nutraceutical delivery. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 2009;14:3–15. doi: 10.1016/j.cocis.2008.01.002. DOI

Sun Y., Xia Z., Zheng J., Qiu P., Zhang L., McClements D.J., Xiao H. Nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for nutraceuticals: Influence of carrier oil type on bioavailability of pterostilbene. J. Funct. Foods. 2015;13:61–70. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2014.12.030. DOI

Raikos V., Ranawana V. Designing emulsion droplets of foods and beverages to enhance delivery of lipophilic bioactive components—A review of recent advances. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2017;52:68–80. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.13272. DOI

Ali E.M., Almagboul A.Z., Khogali S.M., Gergeir U.M. Antimicrobial activity of Cannabis sativa L. Chin. Med. 2012;3:61–64. doi: 10.4236/cm.2012.31010. DOI

Leizer C., Ribnicky D., Poulev A., Dushenkov S., Raskin I. The composition of hemp seed oil and its potential as an important source of nutrition. J. Nutr. Funct. Med. Foods. 2000;2:35–53. doi: 10.1300/J133v02n04_04. DOI

Joye I.J., McClements D.J. Biopolymer-based nanoparticles and microparticles: Fabrication, characterization, and application. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 2014;19:417–427. doi: 10.1016/j.cocis.2014.07.002. DOI

Gunstone F.D. Vegetable Oils in Food Technology: Composition, Properties and Uses. 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell; Oxford, UK: 2011.

El-Abbassi A., Neves M.A., Kobayashi I., Hafidi A., Nakajima M. Preparation and characterization of highly stable monodisperse argan oil-in-water emulsions using microchannel emulsification. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2013;115:224–231. doi: 10.1002/ejlt.201200085. DOI

Goula A.M., Adamopoulos K.G. A method for pomegranate seed application in food industries: Seed oil encapsulation. Food Bioprod. Process. 2012;90:639–652. doi: 10.1016/j.fbp.2012.06.001. DOI

Komaiko J., McClements D.J. Low-energy formation of edible nanoemulsions by spontaneous emulsification: Factors influencing particle size. J. Food Eng. 2015;146:122–128. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.09.003. DOI

Yu L.L., Zhou K.K., Parry J. Antioxidant properties of cold-pressed black caraway, carrot, cranberry, and hemp seed oils. Food Chem. 2005;91:723–729. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.06.044. DOI

Kowalska M., Ziomek M., Zbikowska A. Stability of cosmetic emulsion containing different amount of hemp oil. Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 2015;37:408–416. doi: 10.1111/ics.12211. PubMed DOI

Raikos V., Konstantinidi V., Duthie G. Processing and storage effects on the oxidative stability of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) oil-in-water emulsions. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015;50:2316–2322. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.12896. DOI

Burton G., Goo C.S., Zhang Y.Q., Jun M.B.G. Use of vegetable oil in water emulsion achieved through ultrasonic atomization as cutting fluids in micro-milling. J. Manuf. Process. 2014;16:405–413. doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.04.005. DOI

Lawal S.A., Choudhury I.A., Nukman Y. Evaluation of vegetable and mineral oil-in-water emulsion cutting fluids in turning aisi 4340 steel with coated carbide tools. J. Clean. Prod. 2014;66:610–618. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.066. DOI

Anwar F., Latif S., Ashraf M. Analytical characterization of hemp (Cannabis sativa) seed oil from different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2006;83:323–329. doi: 10.1007/s11746-006-1207-x. DOI

Teh S.S., Birch J. Physicochemical and quality characteristics of cold-pressed hemp, flax and canola seed oils. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2013;30:26–31. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2013.01.004. DOI

Ostertag F., Weiss J., McClements D.J. Low-energy formation of edible nanoemulsions: Factors influencing droplet size produced by emulsion phase inversion. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2012;388:95–102. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2012.07.089. PubMed DOI

Gullapalli R.P., Sheth B.B. Influence of an optimized non-ionic emulsifier blend on properties of oil-in-water emulsions. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 1999;48:233–238. doi: 10.1016/S0939-6411(99)00048-X. PubMed DOI

Pereira T., Guerreiro C., Maruno M., Ferrari M., Rocha-Filho P. Exotic vegetable oils for cosmetic o/w nanoemulsions: In vivo evaluation. Molecules. 2016;21:248. doi: 10.3390/molecules21030248. PubMed DOI PMC

Lane K.E., Li W., Smith C.J., Derbyshire E.J. The development of vegetarian omega-3 oil in water nanoemulsions suitable for integration into functional food products. J. Funct. Foods. 2016;23:306–314. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.02.043. DOI

Krasodomska O., Jungnickel C. Viability of fruit seed oil o/w emulsions in personal care products. Colloids Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2015;481:468–475. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2015.06.022. DOI

Florence A.T., Attwood D. Physicochemical Principles of Pharmacy. 5th ed. Pharmaceutical Press; London, UK: 2011.

Sevcikova P., Kasparkova V., Hauerlandova I., Humpolicek P., Kucekova Z., Bunkova L. Formulation, antibacterial activity, and cytotoxicity of 1-monoacylglycerol microemulsions. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014;116:448–457.

Rao J., McClements D.J. Lemon oil solubilization in mixed surfactant solutions: Rationalizing microemulsion and nanoemulsion formation. Food Hydrocoll. 2012;26:268–276. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.06.002. DOI

Mehmood T. Optimization of the canola oil based vitamin e nanoemulsions stabilized by food grade mixed surfactants using response surface methodology. Food Chem. 2015;183:1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.021. PubMed DOI

Homayoonfal M., Khodaiyan F., Mousavi S.M. Optimization of walnut oil nanoemulsions prepared using ultrasonic emulsification: A response surface method. J. Disper. Sci. Technol. 2014;35:685–694. doi: 10.1080/01932691.2013.805302. DOI

Rebolleda S., Sanz M.T., Benito J.M., Beltrán S., Escudero I., González San-José M.L. Formulation and characterisation of wheat bran oil-in-water nanoemulsions. Food Chem. 2015;167:16–23. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.06.097. PubMed DOI

Wasim K., Haq I., Ashraf M. Antimicrobial studies of the leaf of Cannabis sativa L. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 1995;8:29–38. PubMed

Novak J., Zitterl-Eglseer K., Deans S.G., Franz C.M. Essential oils of different cultivars of Cannabis sativa L. And their antimicrobial activity. Flavour Fragr. J. 2001;16:259–262. doi: 10.1002/ffj.993. DOI

Seidel V., Taylor P.W. In vitro activity of extracts and constituents of pelagonium against rapidly growing mycobacteria. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 2004;23:613–619. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2003.11.008. PubMed DOI

Matthaus B., Bruhl L. Virgin hemp seed oil: An interesting niche product. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2008;110:655–661. doi: 10.1002/ejlt.200700311. DOI

Altieri C., Bevilacqua A., Cardillo D., Sinigaglia M. Effectiveness of fatty acids and their monoglycerides against gram-negative pathogens. Int. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 2009;44:359–366. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2008.01744.x. DOI

Ghosh V., Mukherjee A., Chandrasekaran N. Eugenol-loaded antimicrobial nanoemulsion preserves fruit juice against, microbial spoilage. Colloid Surf. B. 2014;114:392–397. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.10.034. PubMed DOI

Toutain-Kidd C.M., Kadivar S.C., Bramante C.T., Bobin S.A., Zegans M.E. Polysorbate 80 inhibition of pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation and its cleavage by the secreted lipase lipa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009;53:136–145. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00500-08. PubMed DOI PMC

AOCS . Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 6th ed. AOCS Press; Champaign, IL, USA: 2011.