The annual cycle of migrating birds is shaped by their seasonal movements between breeding and non-breeding sites. Studying how migratory populations are linked throughout the annual cycle-migratory connectivity, is crucial to understanding the population dynamics of migrating bird species. This requires the consideration not only of spatial scales as has been the main focus to date but also of temporal scales: only when both aspects are taken into account, the degree of migratory connectivity can be properly defined. We investigated the migration behaviour of hoopoes (Upupa epops) from four breeding populations across Europe and characterised migration routes to and from the breeding grounds, location of non-breeding sites and the timing of key migration events. Migration behaviour was found to vary both within and amongst populations, and even though the spatial migratory connectivity amongst the populations was weak, temporal connectivity was strong with differences in timing amongst populations, but consistent timing within populations. The combination of diverse migration routes within populations and co-occurrence on the non-breeding grounds between populations might promote exchange between breeding populations. As a result, it might make hoopoes and other migrating bird species with similar strategies more resilient to future habitat or climatic changes and stabilise population trends.

Czech Society for Ornithology Na bělidle 34 Prague Czech Republic

Departamento de Zoología Universidad de Granada E 18071 Granada Spain

Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies University of Zürich Winterthurerstrasse 190 CH 8057 Zürich Switzerland

IHU Geologie und Analytik Dr Kurt Schumacher Straße 23 39578 Stendal Germany

Institute of Ecology and Evolution Division of Conservation Biology University of Bern Baltzerstrasse 6 CH 3012 Bern Switzerland

Magle Torv 4 2860 Søborg Denmark

Staatliche Betriebsgesellschaft für Umwelt und Landwirtschaft Park 2 02699 Neschwitz Germany

Swiss Ornithological Institute Seerose 1 CH 6204 Sempach Switzerland

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