BACKGROUND: Below-ground bud banks have experienced much recent interest due to discoveries that they (1) account for the majority of seasonal population renewal in many communities, (2) are crucial to regeneration following disturbance, and (3) have important consequences for plant population dynamics and plant and ecosystem function across a number of habitats. SCOPE: This review presents an overview of the role of bud banks in plant population renewal, examines bud bank life history, summarizes bud bank traits and their potential ecological implications, synthesizes the response of bud banks to disturbance, and highlights gaps to guide future research. The characteristics and life history of buds, including their natality, dormancy, protection and longevity, provide a useful framework for advancing our understanding of bud banks. The fate of buds depends on their age, size, type, location, and biotic and abiotic factors that collectively regulate bud bank dynamics. A bud bank can provide a demographic storage effect stabilizing population dynamics, and also confer resistance to disturbance and invasion. Regeneration capacity following disturbance is determined by interactions among the rates of bud natality, depletion and dormancy (meristem limitation), and the resources available to support the regeneration process. The resulting response of plants and their bud banks to disturbances such as fire, herbivory and anthropogenic sources determines the community's regenerative capacity. CONCLUSIONS: Vegetation responses to environmental change may be mediated through changes in bud bank dynamics and phenology. Environmental change that depletes the bud bank or prohibits its formation likely results in a loss of vegetation resilience and plant species diversity. Standardization of bud sampling, examination of bud banks in more ecosystems and their response to environmental variation and disturbance regimes, employment of stage-structured bud bank modelling and evaluation of the cost of bud bank construction and maintenance will benefit this expanding field of research.

Division of Biology Kansas State University Manhattan KS USA

Forest and Grassland Research Laboratory Rocky Mountain Research Station U S Forest Service Rapid City SD USA

Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences Dukelská CZ Třeboň Czech Republic

See more in PubMed

Abernathy VJ, Willby NJ. 1999. Changes along a disturbance gradient in the density and composition of propagule banks in floodplain aquatic habitats. Plant Ecology 140: 177–190.

Ahn J, Franklin SB, Douhovnikoff V. 2017. Epigenetic variation in clonal stands of aspen. Folia Geobotanica 52: 443–449.

Alfonso-Corrado C, Clark-Tapia R, Mendoza A. 2007. Demography and management of two clonal oaks: Quercus eduardii and Q. potosina (Fagaceae) in central Mexico. Forest Ecology and Management 251: 129–141.

Anderson JE, Inouye RS. 2001. Landscape-scale changes in plant species abundances and biodiversity of a sagebrush steppe over 45 years. Ecological Monographs 71: 531–556.

Ayukawa E, Imura S, Kanda H. 2001. Bryophyte propagule bank in the Yukidori Valley, Langhovde, Antarctica. Antarctic Record 45: 320–328.

Barrat-Segretain MH, Bornette G, Hering-Vilas-Bôas A. 1998. Comparative abilities of vegetative regeneration among aquatic plants growing in disturbed habitats. Aquatic Botany 60: 201–211.

Bartušková A, Klimešová J. 2010. Reiteration in the short lived root-sprouting herb Rorippa palustris: does the origin of buds matter? Botany 88: 630–638.

Bartušková A, Malíková L, Klimešová J. 2017. Checklist of root-sprouters in the Czech flora: mapping the gaps in our knowledge. Folia Geobotanica 52: 337–343.

Becker GF, Busso CA, Montani T. 1997. Effects of defoliating Stipa tenuis and Piptochaetium napostaense at different phenological stages: axillary bud viability and growth. Journal of Arid Environments 35: 233–250.

Bell TL, Ojeda F. 1999. Underground starch storage in Erica species of the Cape Floristic Region—differences between seeders and resprouters. New Phytologist 144: 143–152.

Bellingham PJ, Sparrow AD. 2000. Resprouting as a life history strategy in woody plant communities. Oikos 89: 409–416.

Bellingham PJ, Tanner EVJ, Healy JR. 1994. Sprouting of trees in Jamaican montane forests after a hurricane. Journal of Ecology 82: 747–758.

Benson E, Hartnett DC. 2006. The role of seed and vegetative reproduction in plant recruitment and demography in tallgrass prairie. Plant Ecology 187: 163–177.

Benson E, Hartnett DC, Mann KH. 2004. Belowground bud banks and meristem limitation in tallgrass prairie plant populations. American Journal of Botany 91: 416–421. PubMed

Bidartondo MI, Burghart B, Gebauer G, Bruns TD, Read DJ. 2004. Changing partners in the dark: isotopic and molecular evidence of ectomycorrhizal liaisons between forest orchids and trees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 271: 1799–1806. PubMed PMC

Bolles KC, Forman SL. 2018. Evaluating landscape degradation along climatic gradients during the 1930s dust bowl drought from panchromatic historical aerial photographs, United States Great Plains. Frontiers in Earth Science 6: 153.

Bond WJ, Midgley JJ. 2001. Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: the persistence niche. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 45–51. PubMed

Bonser SP, Aarssen LW. 1996. Meristem allocation: a new classification theory for adaptive strategies in herbaceous plants. Oikos 77: 347–352.

Bonser SP, Aarssen LW. 2006. Meristem allocation and life-history evolution in herbaceous plants. Canadian Journal of Botany 84: 143–150.

Brando PM, Durigan G. 2004. Changes in cerrado vegetation after disturbance by frost (Sao Paulo State, Brazil). Plant Ecology 175: 205–215.

Briske DD. 1991. Developmental morphology and physiology of grasses. In: Heitschmidt RK, Stuth JW, eds. Grazing management: an ecological perspective. Portland: Timber Press, 85–108.

Burrows GE. 2007. Epicormic strand structure in Angophora, Eucalyptus and Lophostemon (Myrtaceae) – implications for fire resistance and recovery. New Phytologist 153: 111–131.

Busso CA, Mueller RJ, Richards JH. 1989. Effects of drought and defoliation on bud viability in two caespitose grasses. Annals of Botany 63: 477–485.

Busso CA, Boo RM, Pelaez DV. 1993. Fire effects on bud viability and growth on Stipa tenuis in semiarid Argentina. Annals of Botany 71: 377–381.

Busso CA, Gittins C, Becker GF, Ghermandi L. 2011. Tiller hierarchy and defoliation frequency determine bud viability in the grass Poa ligularis. Ecological Research 26: 985–997.

Cable DR. 1971. Growth and development of Arizona cottontop (Trichachne californica [Benth.] Chase). Botanical Gazette 132: 119–145.

Carlsson BA, Callaghan TV. 1990. Programmed tiller differentiation, intraclonal density regulation and nutrient dynamics in Carex bigelowii. Oikos 58: 219–230.

Carter DL, VanderWeide BL. 2014. Belowground bud production is linked to population establishment in Sorghastrum nutans (Poaceae). Plant Ecology 215: 977–986.

Carter DL, VanderWeide BL, Blair JM. 2012. Drought-mediated stem and below-ground bud dynamics in restored grasslands. Applied Vegetation Science 15: 470–478.

Cellot B, Mouillot F, Henry CP. 1998. Flood drift and propagule bank of aquatic macrophytes in a riverine wetland. Journal of Vegetation Science 9: 631–640.

Chen X, Deng Z, Xie Y, Li F, Hou Z, Li X. 2015a Belowground bud banks of four dominant macrophytes along a small-scale elevational gradient in Dongting Lake wetlands, China. Aquatic Botany 122: 9–14.

Chen X, Li Y, Xie Y, Deng Z, Li X, Li F, Hou Z. 2015b Trade-off between allocation to reproductive ramets and rhizome buds in Carex brevicuspis populations along a small-scale elevational gradient. Scientific Reports 5: 12688. PubMed PMC

Clarke PJ, Lawes MJ, Midgley JJ, et al. . 2013. Resprouting as a key functional trait: how buds, protection and resources drive persistence after fire. New Phytologist 197: 19–35. PubMed

Clarke PJ, Lawes MJ, Murphy BP, et al. . 2015. A synthesis of post-fire recovery traits of woody plants in Australian ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment 534: 31–42. PubMed

Cline MG. 1997. Concepts and terminology of apical dominance. American Journal of Botany 84: 1064–1069. PubMed

Cohen D. 1966. Optimizing reproduction in a randomly varying environment. Journal of Theoretical Biology 12: 119–129. PubMed

Combroux ICS, Bornette G, Amoros C. 2002. Plant regenerative strategies after a major disturbance: the case of a riverine wetland restoration. Wetlands 22: 234–246.

Cruz A, Perez B, Moreno JM. 2003. Resprouting of the Mediterranean-type shrub Erica australis with modified lignotuber carbohydrate content. Journal of Ecology 91: 348–356.

Dalgleish HJ, Hartnett DC. 2006. Belowground bud banks increase along a precipitation gradient of the North American Great Plains: a test of the meristem limitation hypothesis. New Phytologist 171: 81–89. PubMed

Dalgleish HJ, Hartnett DC. 2009. The effects of fire frequency and grazing on tallgrass prairie plant composition and productivity are mediated through bud bank demography. Plant Ecology 201: 411–420.

Dalgleish HJ, Kula AR, Hartnett DC, Sandercock BK. 2008. Responses of two bunchgrasses to nitrogen addition in tallgrass prairie: the role of bud bank demography. American Journal of Botany 95: 672–680. PubMed

Dalgleish HJ, Ott JP, Setshogo MP, Hartnett DC. 2012. Inter-specific variation in bud banks and flowering effort among semi-arid African savanna grasses. South African Journal of Botany 83: 127–133.

Davis MA, Grime JP, Thompson K. 2000. Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general theory of invasibility. Journal of Ecology 88: 528–534.

Derner JD, Briske DD. 1999. Intraclonal regulation in a perennial caespitose grass: a field evaluation of aboveground and belowground resource availability. Journal of Ecology 87: 737–747.

Diggle PK. 1997. Extreme preformation in alpine Polygonum viviparum: an architectural and developmental analysis. American Journal of Botany 84: 154–169. PubMed

Ellstrand NC, Roose ML. 1987. Patterns of genotypic diversity in clonal plant species. American Journal of Botany 74: 123–131.

Evert RF. 2006. Esau’s Plant anatomy: meristems, cells, and tissues of the plant body – their structure, function, and development. Hoboken: John Wiley.

Fair J, Lauenroth WK, Coffin D. 1999. Demography of Bouteloua gracilis in a mixed prairie: analysis of genets and individuals. Journal of Ecology 87: 233–243.

Ferreira MC, Walter BMT, Vieira DLM. 2015. Topsoil translocation for Brazilian savanna restoration: propagation of herbs, shrubs, and trees. Restoration Ecology 23: 723–728.

Fidelis A, Appezzato-da-Gloria B, Pillar VD, Pfadenhauer J. 2014. Does disturbance affect bud bank size and belowground structures diversity in Brazilian subtropical grasslands? Flora 209: 110–116.

Filartiga AL, Klimešová J, Appezzato-da-Glória B. 2017. Underground organs of Brazilian Asteraceae: testing the CLO-PLA database traits. Folia Geobotanica 52: 367–385.

Geber MA, Watson MA, de Kroon H. 1997. Organ preformation, development, and resource allocation in perennials. In: Bazzaz FA, Grace J, eds. Plant resource allocation. San Diego: Academic Press, 113–141.

Gonzalez SL, Ghermandi L, Pelaez DV. 2015. Growth and reproductive post-fire responses of two shrubs in semiarid Patagonian grasslands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24: 809–818.

Gremer JR, Sala A, Crone EE. 2010. Disappearing plants: why they hide and how they return. Ecology 91: 3407–3413. PubMed

Groom PK, Lamont BB. 2011. Regional and local effects on reproduction allocation in epicormics and lignotuberous populations of Banksia menziesii. Plant Ecology 212: 2003–2011.

Guero-Campo J, Palacio S, Perez-Rontome C, Monserrat-Martí G. 2006. Effect of root system morphology on root-sprouting and shoot-rooting abilities in 123 plant species from eroded lands in north-east Spain. Annals of Botany 98: 439–447. PubMed PMC

Harper JL. 1977. Population biology of plants. London: Academic Press.

Hartnett DC. 1991. Effects of fire in tallgrass prairie on growth and reproduction of prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera: Asteraceae). American Journal of Botany 78: 429–435.

Hartnett DC, Setshogo MP, Dalgleish HJ. 2006. Bud banks of perennial savanna grasses in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 44: 256–263.

Hendrickson JR, Briske DD. 1997. Axillary bud banks of two semiarid perennial grasses: occurrence, longevity, and contribution to population persistence. Oecologia 110: 584–591. PubMed

Herben T, Nováková Z, Klimešová J, Hrouda L. 2012. Species traits and plant performance: functional trade-offs in a large set of species in a botanical garden. Journal of Ecology 100: 1522–1533.

Herben T, Šerá B, Klimešová J. 2015. Clonal growth and sexual reproduction: tradeoffs and environmental constraints. Oikos 124: 469–476.

Herben T, Chytrý M, Klimešová J. 2016. A quest for species-level indicator values for disturbance. Journal of Vegetation Science 27: 628–636.

Herben T, Klimešová J, Chytrý M. 2018. Effects of disturbance frequency and severity on plant traits: an assessment across a temperate flora. Functional Ecology 32: 799–808.

Horvath DP, Anderson JV, Chao WS, Foley ME. 2003. Knowing when to grow: signals regulating bud dormancy. Trends in Plant Science 8: 534–540. PubMed

Hughes EG. 1974. Coolibah trees return to life after 68 years ‘dead’. Arid Zone Newsletter, CSIRO, Perth 166.

Hutchings MJ, Bradbury P. 1986. Ecological perspectives on clonal perennial herbs. Bioscience 36: 178–182.

Jackson JBC, Buss LW, Cook RE. 1985. Population biology and evolution of clonal organisms. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Kammesheidt L. 1999. Forest recovery by root suckers and above-ground sprouts after slash-and-burn agriculture, fire and logging in Paraguay and Venezuela. Journal of Tropical Ecology 15: 143–157.

Keeley JE, Bond WJ, Bradstock RA, Pausas JG, Rundel PW. 2012. Fire in Mediterranean ecosystems: ecology, evolution and management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Klimeš L. 2008. Clonal splitters and integrators in harsh environments of the Trans-Himalaya. Evolutionary Ecology 22: 351–367.

Klimeš L, Klimešová J, Hendriks R, van Groenendael J. 1997. Clonal plant architecture: comparative analysis of form and function. In: de Kroon H, van Groenendael J, eds. The ecology and evolution of clonal plants. Leiden: Backhuys, 1–29.

Klimešová J. 2011. Vegetative propagation. In: Simberloff D, Rejmánek M, eds. Encyclopedia of invasive introduced species. Berkeley: University of California Press, 678–679.

Klimešová J, Klimeš L. 2007. Bud banks and their role in vegetative regeneration – a literature review and proposal for simple classification and assessment. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8: 115–129.

Klimešová J, Klimeš L. 2008. Clonal growth diversity and bud banks of plants in the Czech flora: an evaluation using the CLO-PLA3 database. Preslia 80: 255–275.

Klimešová J, Martínková J. 2004. Intermediate growth forms as a model for the study of plant clonality functioning: an example with root sprouters. Evolutionary Ecology 18: 669–681.

Klimešová J, Kociánová A, Martínková J. 2008. Weeds that can do both tricks: vegetative versus generative regeneration of the short-lived root-sprouting herbs Rorippa palustris and Barbarea vulgaris. Weed Research 48: 131–135.

Klimešová J, Pokorná A, Klimeš L. 2009. Establishment growth and bud bank formation in Epilobium angustifolium: the effects of nutrient availability, plant injury and environmental heterogeneity. Botany 87: 195–201.

Klimešová J, Maliková L, Rosenthal J, Šmilauer P. 2014. Potential bud bank responses to apical meristem damage and environmental variables: matching or complementing axillary meristems? PLoS One 9: e88093. PubMed PMC

Klimešová J, Nobis M, Herben T. 2015. Senescence, ageing and death of the whole plant: morphological prerequisites and constraints of plant immortality. New Phytologist 206: 14–18. PubMed

Klimešová J, Danihelka J, Chrtek J, de Bello F, Herben T. 2017a CLO-PLA: a database of clonal and bud bank traits of Central European flora. Ecology 98: 1179. PubMed

Klimešová J, Herben T, Martínková J. 2017b Disturbance is an important factor in the evolution and distribution of root-sprouting species. Evolutionary Ecology 31: 387–399.

Knapp AK, Smith MD. 2001. Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of aboveground primary production. Science 291: 481–484. PubMed

Kollmann J, Brink-Jensen K, Frandsen SI, Hansen MK. 2011. Uprooting and burial of invasive alien plants: A new tool in coastal restoration? Restoration Ecology 19: 371–378.

de Kroon H, van Groenendael J, eds. 1997. The ecology and evolution of clonal plants. Leiden: Backhuys.

Krumbiegel A. 2001. Vegetative reproduction strategies of pseudoannual plants in central Europe. Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen 72: 287–313.

Lang GA, Early JD, Martin GC, Darnell RL. 1987. Endo-, para-, and ecodormancy: physiological terminology and classification for dormancy research. HortScience 22: 371–377.

Latzel V, Klimešová J. 2010. Transgenerational plasticity in clonal plants. Evolutionary Ecology 24: 1537–1543.

Latzel V, Mihulka S, Klimešová J. 2008. Plant traits and regeneration of urban plant communities after disturbance: does the bud bank play any role? Applied Vegetation Science 11: 387–394.

Latzel V, Klimešová J, Doležal J, Pyšek P, Tackenberg O, Prach K. 2011. The association of dispersal and persistence traits of plants with different stages of succession in Central European man-made habitats. Folia Geobotanica 46: 289–302.

Leakey RRB. 1991. Adaptive biology of vegetatively regenerating weeds. Advances in Applied Biology 6: 57–90.

Lee P. 2004. The impact of burn intensity from wildfires on seed and vegetative banks, and emergent understory in aspen-dominated boreal forests. Canadian Journal of Botany 82: 1468–1480.

Li H, Yang Y. 2011. Bud banks of two perennial grasses: composition, size, dynamics and contribution to population maintenance during the flooded restoration succession on the Songnen Meadow, China. African Journal of Agricultural Research 6: 2198–2203.

Liew J, Andersson L, Bostrom U, Forkman J, Hakman I, Magnuski E. 2013. Regeneration capacity from buds on roots and rhizomes in five herbaceous perennials as affected by time of fragmentation. Plant Ecology 214: 1199–1209.

Lloret F, Verdu M, Flores-Hernandez N, Valiente-Banuet A. 1999. Fire and resprouting in Mediterranean ecosystems: insights from an external biogeographical region, the Mexical Shrubland. American Journal of Botany 86: 1655–1661. PubMed

Mandák B, Pyšek P. 2001. Fruit dispersal and seed banks in Atriplex sagittata: the role of heterocarpy. Journal of Ecology 89: 159–165.

Martínková J, Klimešová J. 2017. Position of tillers in a clone determines their fate and growth: an example of clonal grass Phalaris arundinacea. Folia Geobotanica 52: 317–325.

Martínková J, Kočvarová M, Klimešová J. 2004. Resprouting after disturbance in the short-lived herb Rorippa palustris (Brassicaceae): an experiment with juveniles. Acta Oecologica 25: 143–150.

McIntyre GI. 1970. Studies on bud development in rhizome of Agropyron repens. 1. Influence of temperature, light intensity, and bud position on pattern of development. Canadian Journal of Botany 48: 1903–1909.

McSteen P. 2009. Hormonal regulation of branching in grasses. Plant Physiology 149: 46–55. PubMed PMC

Midgley JJ. 1996. Why the world’s vegetation is not totally dominated by resprouting plants: because resprouters are shorter than reseeders. Ecography 19: 92–95.

Mitchell KJ. 1953. Influence of light and temperature on the growth of ryegrass (Lolium spp.). II. The control of lateral bud development. Physiologia Plantarum 6: 425–443.

Moles AT, Westoby M. 2004a.Seedling survival and seed size: a synthesis of the literature. Journal of Ecology 92: 372–383.

Moles AT, Westoby M. 2004b What do seedlings die from and what are the implications for evolution of seed size? Oikos 106: 193–199.

Mudrák O, Fajmon K, Jongepierová I, Prach K. 2018. Mass effects, clonality, and phenology but not seed traits predict species success in colonizing restored grasslands. Restoration Ecology 26: 489–496.

Mueller RJ, Richards JH. 1986. Morphological analysis of tillering in Agropyron spicatum and Agropyron desertorum. Annals of Botany 58: 911–921.

Mullahey JJ, Waller SS, Moser LE. 1991. Defoliation effects on yield and bud and tiller numbers of two Sandhills grasses. Journal of Range Management 44: 241–245.

Murphy JS, Briske DD. 1994. Density-dependent regulation of ramet recruitment by the red:far red ratio of solar radiation – a field evaluation with the bunchgrass Schizachyrium scoparium. Oecologia 97: 462–469. PubMed

N’Guessan M. 2007. Effects of grazing on growth and morphology of rhizomatous and caespitose grasses in tallgrass prairie. MS Thesis, Kansas State University, USA.

N’Guessan M, Hartnett DC. 2011. Differential responses to defoliation frequency in little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) in tallgrass prairie: implications for herbivory tolerance and avoidance. Plant Ecology 212: 1275–1285.

Ott JP. 2009. Bud bank morphology, dynamics, and production in perennial grasses. MS Thesis, Kansas State University, USA.

Ott JP, Hartnett DC. 2011. Bud production and dynamics of flowering and vegetative tillers in Andropogon gerardii (Poaceae): The role of developmental constraints. American Journal of Botany 98: 1293–1298. PubMed

Ott JP, Hartnett DC. 2012a Contrasting bud bank dynamics of two co-occurring grasses in tallgrass prairie: implications for grassland dynamics. Plant Ecology 213: 1437–1448.

Ott JP, Hartnett DC. 2012b Higher-order bud production increases tillering capacity in the perennial caespitose grass Scribner’s panicum (Dichanthelium oligosanthes). Botany 90: 884–890.

Ott JP, Hartnett DC. 2015a Bud bank dynamics and clonal growth strategy in the rhizomatous grass, Pascopyrum smithii. Plant Ecology 216: 395–405.

Ott JP, Hartnett DC. 2015b Bud-bank and tiller dynamics of co-occurring C3 caespitose grasses in mixed-grass prairie. American Journal of Botany 102: 1462–1471. PubMed

Ott JP, Hartnett DC. 2015c Vegetative reproduction and bud bank dynamics of the perennial grass Andropogon gerardii in mixed grass and tallgrass prairie. American Midland Naturalist 174: 14–32.

Ott JP, Butler JL, Rong Y, Xu L. 2017. Greater bud outgrowth of Bromus inermis than Pascopyrum smithii under multiple environmental conditions. Journal of Plant Ecology 10: 518–527.

Ottaviani G, Martínková J, Herben T, Pausas JG, Klimešová J. 2017. On plant modularity traits: functions and challenges. Trends in Plant Science 22: 648–651. PubMed

Paula S, Ojeda F. 2011. Response to recurrent disturbance in two co-occurring re-sprouter heath species: the ecological consequences of withstanding herbivores. Plant Ecology 212: 2035–2045.

Paula S, Naulin P, Arce C, Galaz C, Pausas JG. 2016. Lignotubers in Mediterranean basin plants. Plant Ecology 217: 661–676.

Pausas JG, Lamont BB, Paula S, Appezzato-da-Glória B, Fidelis A. 2018. Unearthing belowground bud banks in fire-prone ecosystems. New Phytologist 217: 1435–1448. PubMed

Pelaez DV, Boo RM, Elia OR, Mayor MD. 1997. Effect of fire intensity on bud viability of three grass species native to central semi-arid Argentina. Journal of Arid Environments 37: 309–317.

Pelaez DV, Boo RM, Mayor MD, Elia OR, Cardona NM. 2009. Effect of post-fire defoliation on bud viability and plant mortality of Piptochaetium napostaense (Speg.) Hack. and Poa ligularis Ness. Journal of Arid Environments 73: 708–712.

Perreta M, Ramos J, Tivano JC, Vegetti A. 2011. Descriptive characters of growth form in Poaceae – an overview. Flora 206: 283–293.

Peters DPC. 2000. Climatic variation and simulated patterns in seedling establishment of two dominant grasses at a semi-arid-arid grassland ecotone. Journal of Vegetation Science 11: 493–504.

Primack R, Stacy E. 1998. Cost of reproduction in the pink lady’s slipper orchid (Cypripedium acaule, Orchidaceae): an eleven-year experimental study of three populations. American Journal of Botany 85: 1672–1679. PubMed

Putz N, Sukkau I. 2002. Seedling establishment, bud movement, and subterranean diversity of geophilous systems in Apiaceae. Flora 197: 385–393

Qian JQ, Busso CA, Wang ZW, Liu ZM. 2015. Ramet recruitment from different bud types along a grassland degradation gradient in Inner Mongolia, China. Polish Journal of Ecology 63: 38–52.

Qian J, Wang Z, Klimešová J, Lü X, Kuang W, Liu Z, Han X. 2017. Differences in below-ground bud bank density and composition along a climatic gradient in the temperate steppe of northern China. Annals of Botany 120: 755–764 PubMed PMC

Raunkiaer C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. London: Clarendon Press.

Reichmann LG, Sala OE. 2014. Differential sensitivities of grassland structural components to changes in precipitation mediate productivity response in a desert ecosystem. Functional Ecology 28: 1292–1298.

Reichmann LG, Sala OE, Peters DPC. 2013. Precipitation legacies in desert grassland primary production occur through previous-year tiller density. Ecology 94: 435–443. PubMed

Richards EG, Burningham H. 2011. Hippophae rhamnoides on a coastal dune system: a thorny issue? Journal of Coastal Conservation 15: 73–85.

Richards MB, Lamont BB. 1996. Post-fire mortality and water relations of three congeneric shrub species under extreme water stress – a trade-off with fecundity? Oecologia 107: 53–60. PubMed

Rogers WE, Hartnett DC. 2001. Temporal vegetation dynamics and recolonization mechanisms on different-sized soil disturbances in tallgrass prairie. American Journal of Botany 88: 1634–1642. PubMed

Rusch GM, Wilmann B, Klimesova J, Evju M. 2011. Do clonal and bud bank traits vary in correspondence with soil properties and resource acquisition strategies? Patterns in alpine communities in the Scandian Mountains. Folia Geobotanica 46: 237–254.

Russell ML, Vermeire LT. 2015. Fire and nitrogen alter axillary bud number and activity in purple threeawn. Rangeland Ecology and Management 68: 65–70.

Russell ML, Vermeire LT, Ganguli AC, Hendrickson JR. 2015. Season of fire manipulates bud bank dynamics in northern mixed-grass prairie. Plant Ecology 216: 835–846.

Salguero-Gomez R, Jones OR, Archer CR, et al. . 2015. The COMPADRE Plant Matrix Database: an open online repository for plant demography. Journal of Ecology 103: 202–218.

Sands BA, Abrams M. 2009. Effects of stump diameter on sprout number and size for three oak species in a Pennsylvania clear-cut. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 26: 122–125.

Scott KA, Setterfield SA, Douglas MM, Andersen AN. 2010. Fire tolerance of perennial grass tussocks in a savanna woodland. Austral Ecology 35: 858–861.

Shefferson RP. 2009. The evolutionary ecology of vegetative dormancy in mature herbaceous perennial plants. Journal of Ecology 97: 1000–1009.

Shefferson RP, Warren RJ II, Pulliam HR. 2014. Life-history costs make perfect sprouting maladaptive in two herbaceous perennials. Journal of Ecology 102: 1318–1328.

Shimizu-Sato S, Mori H. 2001. Control of outgrowth and dormancy in axillary buds. Plant Physiology 127: 1405–1413. PubMed PMC

Silvertown J, Franco M, Pisanty I, Mendoza A. 1993. Comparative plant demography—relative importance of life-cycle components to the finite rate of increase in woody and herbaceous perennials. Journal of Ecology 81: 465–476.

Skálová H, Krahulec F. 1992. The response of 3 Festuca rubra clones to changes in light quality and plant density. Functional Ecology 6: 282–290

Sosnová M, van Diggelen R, Klimešová J. 2010. Distribution of clonal growth forms in wetlands. Aquatic Botany 92: 33–39.

Stafstrom JP, Ripley BD, Devitt ML, Drake B. 1998. Dormancy-associated gene expression in pea axillary buds. Planta 205: 547–552. PubMed

Šťastná P, Klimešová J, Doležal J. 2012. Altitudinal changes in growth and allometry of Rumex alpinus. Alpine Botany 122: 35–44.

Suzuki J, Mutchings MJ. 1997. Interactions between shoots in clonal plants and the effects of stored resources on the structure of shoot populations. In: de Kroon H, van Groenendael J, eds. The ecology and evolution of clonal plants. Leiden: Backhuys, 311–330.

Tomlinson KW, O’Connor TG. 2004. Control of tiller recruitment in bunchgrasses: uniting physiology and ecology. Functional Ecology 18: 489–496.

VanderWeide BL, Hartnett DC. 2015. Belowground bud bank response to grazing under severe, short-term drought. Oecologia 178: 795–806. PubMed

VanderWeide BL, Hartnett DC, Carter DL. 2014. Belowground bud banks of tallgrass prairie are insensitive to multi-year, growing-season drought. Ecosphere 5: 103.

Vesk PA. 2006. Plant size and resprouting ability: trading tolerance and avoidance of damage? Journal of Ecology 94: 1027–1034.

Vesk PA, Westoby M. 2004. Funding the bud bank: a review of the costs of buds. Oikos 106: 200–208.

Vesk PA, Warton DI, Westoby M. 2004. Sprouting by semi-arid plants: testing a dichotomy and predictive traits. Oikos 107: 72–89.

Villamagna AM, Murphy BR. 2010. Ecological and socio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): a review. Freshwater Biology 55: 282–298.

Vítová A, Macek P, Leps J. 2017. Disentangling the interplay of generative and vegetative propagation among different functional groups during gap colonization in meadows. Functional Ecology 31: 458–468.

Waldie T, Hayward A, Beveridge CA. 2010. Axillary bud outgrowth in herbaceous shoots: how do strigolactones fit into the picture? Plant Molecular Biology 73: 27–36. PubMed

Wang Z, Li L, Han XG, Dong M. 2004. Does rhizome severing and shoot defoliation affect clonal growth of Leymus chinensis at ramet population level? Acta Oecologia 26: 255–260.

Watkinson AR, Powell JC. 1993. Seedling recruitment and the maintenance of clonal diversity in plant populations – a computer simulation of Ranunculus repens. Journal of Ecology 81: 707–717.

Watson MA, Casper BB. 1984. Morphogenetic constraints on patterns of carbon distribution in plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 15: 233–258.

Widén B, Cronberg N, Widén M. 1994. Genotypic diversity, molecular markers and spatial distribution of genets in clonal plants, a literature survey. Folia Geobotanica 29: 245–263

Wiegand T, Snyman HA, Kellner K, Paruelo JM. 2004. Do grasslands have a memory: modeling phytomass production of a semiarid South African grassland. Ecosystems 7: 243–258.

Wise MJ, Abrahamson WG. 2007. Effects of resource availability on tolerance of herbivory: a review and assessment of three opposing models. American Naturalist 169: 443–454. PubMed

Williams RF, Langer RHM. 1975. Growth and development of wheat tiller. 2. Dynamics of tiller growth. Australian Journal of Botany 23: 745–759.

Williamson M, Wilson GWT, Hartnett DC. 2012. Controls on bud activation and tiller initiation in C3 and C4 tallgrass prairie grasses: the role of light and nitrogen. Botany 90: 1221–1228.

Woods TM, Hartnett DC, Ferguson CJ. 2009. High propagule production and reproductive fitness homeostasis contribute to the invasiveness of Lespedeza cuneata (Fabaceae). Biological Invasions 11: 1913–1927.

Xie X, Song Y, Zhang Y, Xu P, Dong M. 2014. Phylogenetic meta-analysis of the functional traits of clonal plants foraging in changing environments. PLoS ONE 9: e107114. PubMed PMC

Ye XH, Yu FH, Dong M. 2006. A trade-off between guerrilla and phalanx growth forms in Leymus secalinus under different nutrient supplies. Annals of Botany 98: 187–191. PubMed PMC

Zehnsdorf A, Hussner A, Eismann F, Ronicke H, Melzer A. 2015. Management options of invasive Elodea nuttallii and Elodea canadensis. Limnologica 51: 110–117.

Zhang J, Mu C, Wang D, Wang J, Chen G. 2009. Shoot population recruitment from a bud bank over two seasons of undisturbed growth of Leymus chinensis. Botany 87: 1241–1249.

Rhizome trait scaling relationships are modulated by growth conditions and are linked to plant fitness

A starting guide to root ecology: strengthening ecological concepts and standardising root classification, sampling, processing and trait measurements

Comparative analysis of root sprouting and its vigour in temperate herbs: anatomical correlates and environmental predictors