Profile data on normal lower limb development and specifically tibiofemoral angle development in black, Setswana-speaking South African children are lacking. This study aimed to provide profiles on the development of the tibiofemoral angle, hip anteversion angle and tibial torsion angles in two- to nine-year-old children. Measurements of the tibiofemoral angle, intercondylar distances or intermalleolar distances, quadriceps-angle, hip anteversion- and tibial torsion angle were clinically obtained from 691 healthy two- to nine-year-old children. Two-year-old children presented with closest to genu varum at -3.4° (±3.4°). At three years, a peak of -5.7° (±2.3°) genu valgum was seen, which plateaued at -4.5° (±2.1°) at age nine years. Intermalleolar distance results support tibiofemoral angle observations. Small quadricep-angles were observed in the two-year-old group, (-3.81° ± 3.77°), which increased to a mean peak of -9.2° (±4.4°) in nine-year-olds. From the age of four years old, children presented with neutral tibial torsion angles, whilst two- and three-year-olds presented with internal tibial torsion angles. Anteversion angles were the greatest in three-year-olds at 77.6° ± 13.8° and decreased to a mean angle of 70.8° ± 6.9° in nine-year-olds. The tibiofemoral angle developed similarly to those tested in European, Asian and Nigerian children, but anteversion- and internal tibial torsion angles were greater in the Setswana population than angles reported in European children. Our findings indicate that lower limb development differs in different environments and traditions of back-carrying may influence the development, which requires further investigation.

Department of Sport Didactics University School of Physical Education in Wrocław 51 612 Wrocław Poland

Incubator of Kinanthropology Research Faculty of Sport Studies Masaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic

Physical Activity Sport and Recreation Faculty of Health Sciences North West University Potchefstroom 2525 South Africa

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Back-Carrying in Children Is Related to Lower Limb Development