In the Slovak Republic, a mass testing of the entire population was performed. Estimates show that this testing cost more than 400 million EUR and thousands of euros were paid for one positively identified case. Thus, it is possible to state a high cost for such a project, which has been criticized by many parties. On the other hand, from a public health point of view, mass testing has helped fight the pandemic. Both the health and economic perspectives are important in assessing the success of a pandemic strategy, but the social perspective is equally important. In fact, the situation is perceived from the position of public leaders who make decisions, but also from the position of the society that bears individual political decisions. It is not appropriate to forget about the society that is most affected by restrictions, testing, health status, but also the burden on the state budget. The objective of the presented research was to examine the perception of testing for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the Slovak population. Non-parametric difference tests and correspondence analysis were used for statistical processing. The research sample consisted of 806 respondents and data collection took place in February 2021. The main findings include significant differences in perceptions between the first and the last participation in testing in terms of gender, age, testing experience, and time aspect. The last participation in testing showed lower rates of positive aspects related to the internal motivation to test compared to the first participation. In contrast, external stimulation by government regulations related to restrictions in the absence of a negative result was higher in the last participation in testing. There were also differences between the first and the last test in the level of doubts about the accuracy of the test result, while a higher level was found at the last testing participation. It can be concluded that the frequency of testing and its requirements need to be approached very carefully over time, as it is likely that the positive perceptions may deteriorate. The recommendations include clear and timely government communication, trust building and health education.

Department of Human Resource Management Faculty of Corporate Strategy Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice České Budějovice Czechia

Department of Marketing and International Trade Faculty of Management and Business University of Prešov Prešov Slovakia

Institute of Earth Resources Faculty of Mining Ecology Process Control and Geotechnologies Technical University of Košice Košice Slovakia

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Pavelka M, Van-Zandvoort K, Abbott S, Sherratt K, Majdan M, CMMID COVID-19 working group, et al. . The impact of population-wide rapid antigen testing on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in Slovakia. Science. (2021) 372:635–41. 10.1126/science.abf9648 PubMed DOI PMC

Frnda J, Durica M. On pilot massive COVID-19 testing by antigen tests in Europe. case study: Slovakia. Infect Dis Rep. (2021) 13:45–57. 10.3390/idr13010007 PubMed DOI PMC

Holt E. Slovakia to test all adults for SARS-CoV-2. Lancet. (2020) 396:1386–7. 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32261-3 PubMed DOI PMC

Mahase E. Covid-19: mass testing in Slovakia may have helped cut infections. BMJ. (2020) 371:m4761. 10.1136/bmj.m4761 PubMed DOI

McKee M, Nagyova I. Could Slovakia's mass testing programme work in England? BMJ Opinion. (2020). Available online at: https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2020/12/07/could-slovakias-mass-testing-programme-work-in-england/ (accessed April 16, 2021).

NHIC . National Health Information Center (2021). Available online at: https://covid-19.nczisk.sk/en (accessed April 16, 2021).

Ministry of Interior of the Slovak Republic . Od 8. februára štartuje COVID automat, núdzový stav sa predlŽuje o 40 dní (2021). Available online at: https://www.minv.sk/?tlacove-spravy&sprava=od-8-februara-startuje-covid-automat-nudzovy-stav-sa-predlzuje-o-40-dni (accessed April 16, 2021).

Peña-Rodríguez M, Viera-Segura O, García-Chagollán M, Zepeda-Nuño JS, Muñoz-Valle JF, Mora-Mora J, et al. . Performance evaluation of a lateral flow assays for nasopharyngeal antigen detection for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis. J Clin Lab Anal. (2021) 35:e23745. 10.1002/jcla.23745 PubMed DOI PMC

Cerutti F, Burdino E, Milia MG, Allice T, Gregori G, Bruzzone B, et al. . Urgent need of rapid tests for SARS CoV-2 antigen detection: evaluation of the SD-biosensor antigen test for SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Virol. (2020) 132:104654. 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104654 PubMed DOI PMC

Ristic M, Nikolic N, Cabarkapa V, Turkulov V, Petrovic V. Validation of the STANDARD Q COVID-19 antigen test in Vojvodina, Serbia. PLoS ONE. (2021) 16:e0247606. 10.1371/journal.pone.0247606 PubMed DOI PMC

SD Biosensor . Standard Q Covid-19 Ag. (2021). Available online at: http://sdbiosensor.com/xe/product/7672 (accessed April 16, 2021).

Mak GCK, Lau SSY, Wong KKY, Chow NLS, Lau CS, Lam ETK, et al. . Evaluation of rapid antigen detection kit from the WHO emergency use list for detecting SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Virol. (2021) 134:104712. 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104712 PubMed DOI PMC

Mak GCK, Lau SSY, Wong KKY, Chow NLS, Lau CS, Lam ETK, et al. . Analytical sensitivity and clinical sensitivity of the three rapid antigen detection kits for detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus. J Clin Virol. (2020) 133:104684. 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104684 PubMed DOI PMC

Linares M, Pérez-Tanoira R, Carrero A, Romanyk J, Pérez-Garcia F, Gómez-Herruz P, et al. . Panbio antigen rapid test is reliable to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection in the first 7 days after the onset of symptoms. J Clin Virol. (2020) 133:104659. 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104659 PubMed DOI PMC

Caruana G, Croxatto A, Coste AT, Opota O, Lamoth F, Jaton K, et al. . Diagnostic strategies for SARS-CoV-2 infection and interpretation of microbiological results. Clin Microbiol Infect. (2020) 26:1178–82. 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.06.019 PubMed DOI PMC

Tollånes MC, Bakken Kran AM, Abildsnes E, Jenum PA, Breivik AC, Sandberg S. Evaluation of eleven rapid tests for detection of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. Clin Chem Lab Med. (2020) 58:1595–600. 10.1515/cclm-2020-0628 PubMed DOI

Chaimayo C, Kaewnaphan B, Tanlieng N, Athipanyasilp N, Sirijatuphat R, Chayakulkeeree M, et al. . Rapid SARS-CoV-2 antigen detection assay in comparison with real-time RT-PCR assay for laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19 in Thailand. Virol J. (2020) 17:177. 10.1186/s12985-020-01452-5 PubMed DOI PMC

Schwartz KL, McGeer AJ, Bogoch II. Rapid antigen screening of asymptomatic people as a public health tool to combat COVID-19. CMAJ. (2021) 193:e449–52. 10.1503/cmaj.210100 PubMed DOI PMC

Bosetti P, Kiem CT, Yazdanpanah Y, Fontanet A, Lina B, Colizza V, et al. . Impact of mass testing during an epidemic rebound of SARS-CoV-2: a modelling study using the example of France. Euro Surveill. (2021) 26:2001978. 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.26.1.2001978 PubMed DOI PMC

Ferree KE, Harris AS, Dulani B, Kao K, Lust E, Metheney E. Stigma, trust, and procedural integrity: Covid-19 testing in Malawi. World Dev. (2021) 141:105351. 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105351 PubMed DOI PMC

McElfish PA, Purvis R, James LP, Willis DE, Andersen JA. Perceived barriers to COVID-19 testing. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 18:2278. 10.3390/ijerph18052278 PubMed DOI PMC

Kassas B, Nayga RM. Promoting higher social distancing and stay-at-home decisions during COVID-19: the underlying conflict between public health and the economy. Saf Sci. (2021) 140:105300. 10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105300 PubMed DOI PMC

Bland AR, Roiser JP, Mehta MA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW, Elliott R. The impact of COVID-19 social isolation on aspects of emotional and social cognition. Cogn Emot. (2021) 1–10. 10.1080/02699931.2021.1892593 PubMed DOI

Blake H, Corner J, Cirelli C, Hassard J, Briggs L, Daly JM, et al. . Perceptions and experiences of the University of Nottingham pilot SARS-CoV-2 asymptomatic testing service: a mixed-methods study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 18:188. 10.3390/ijerph18010188 PubMed DOI PMC

Kuniya T, Inaba H. Possible effects of mixed prevention strategy for COVID-19 epidemic: massive testing, quarantine and social distancing. AIMS Public Health. (2020) 7:490–503. 10.3934/publichealth.2020040 PubMed DOI PMC

Vandrevala T, Montague A, Terry P, Fielder M. Willingness of the UK public to volunteer for testing in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic. SSRN. (2020). (accessed December 16, 2021). 10.2139/ssrn.3675401 PubMed DOI PMC

Lindner AK, Nikolai O, Rohardt C, Kausch F, Wintel M, Gertler M, et al. . SARS-CoV-2 patient self-testing with an antigen-detecting rapid test: A head-to-head comparison with professional testing. MedRxiv. (2021) 1–16. 10.1101/2021.01.06.20249009 DOI

Patel J, Christofferson N, Goodlet KJ. Pharmacist-provided SARS-CoV-2 testing targeting a majority-Hispanic community during the early COVID-19 pandemic: results of a patient perception survey. J Am Pharm Assoc. (2021) 62:187–93. 10.1016/j.japh.2021.08.015 PubMed DOI PMC

Libin PJK, Willem L, Verstraeten T, Torneri A, Vanderlocht J, Hens N. Assessing the feasibility and effectiveness of household-pooled universal testing to control COVID-19 epidemics. PLoS Comput Biol. (2021) 17:e1008688. 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008688 PubMed DOI PMC

Chin ET, Huynh BQ, Chapman L, Murrill M, Basu S, Lo NC. Frequency of routine testing for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in high-risk healthcare environments to reduce outbreaks. Clin Infect Dis. (2020) 73:e3127–9. 10.1093/cid/ciaa1383 PubMed DOI PMC

Paltiel AD, Zheng A, Walensky RP. Assessment of SARS-CoV-2 screening strategies to permit the safe reopening of college campuses in the United States. JAMA Netw Open. (2020) 3:e2016818. 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.16818 PubMed DOI PMC

Deeks J, Raffle A, Gill M. COVID-19: government must urgently rethink lateral flow test roll out. BMJ Opinion. (2021). Available online at: https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2021/01/12/covid-19-government-must-urgently-rethink-lateral-flow-test-roll-out/ (accessed April 16, 2021).

The University of Liverpool . Liverpool Covid-19 community testing pilot – Interim evaluation report. Available online at: https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/media/livacuk/coronavirus/Liverpool,Community,Testing,Pilot,Interim,Evaluation.pdf (accessed April 16, 2021).

Auschra C, Möller J, Berthod O, Mazheika Y, Borusiak P. Befundergebnisse verständlich vermitteln – Eine randomisiert-kontrollierte Studie zur Wortwahl in der Ärzt*innen-Patient*innen-Kommunikation [Communicating test results in a comprehensible manner: a randomized controlled trial of word usage in doctor-patient communication]. Z Evid Fortbild Qual Gesundhwes. (2020) 156:40–9. 10.1016/j.zefq.2020.07.007 PubMed DOI

Rolová G. Health literacy in residential addiction treatment programs: study protocol of a cross-sectional study in people with substance use disorders. Adiktologie. (2020) 20:145–50.

Choi W, Shim E. Optimal strategies for social distancing and testing to control COVID-19. J Theor Biol. (2021) 512:110568. 10.1016/j.jtbi.2020.110568 PubMed DOI PMC

DuPre NC, Karimi S, Zhang CH, Blair L, Gupta A, Alharbi L, et al. . County-level demographic, social, economic, and lifestyle correlates of COVID-19 infection and death trajectories during the first wave of the pandemic in the United States. Sci Tot Environ. (2021) 786:147495. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147495 PubMed DOI PMC

Malecki KMC, Keating JA, Safdar N. Crisis communication and public perception of COVID-19 risk in the era of social media. Clin Infect Dis. (2021) 72:697–702. 10.1093/cid/ciaa758 PubMed DOI PMC

Newton K. Government communications, political trust and compliant social behaviour: the politics of Covid-19 in Britain. Polit Q. (2020) 91:502–13. 10.1111/1467-923X.12901 PubMed DOI PMC

Kostopoulou O, Schwartz A. To unpack or not? testing public health messaging about COVID-19. J Exp Psychol Appl. (2021) 27:751–61. 10.1037/xap0000359 PubMed DOI

Briestenský R, Ključnikov A. Identification of the key factors for successful hospital management in Slovakia. Adiktologie. (2019) 19:203–11.

Sopko J, Kocišová K. Key indicators and determinants in the context of the financial aspects of health systems in selected countries. Adiktologie. (2019) 19:189–202. 10.35198/01-2019-004-0003 DOI

Besenyo J, Kármán M. Effects of COVID-19 pandemy on African health, political and economic strategy. Insights Reg Dev. (2020) 2:630–44. 10.9770/IRD.2020.2.3(2) DOI

Strakšiene G, Rugine H, Šaltyte-Vaisiauske L. Characteristics of distance work organization in SMEs during the COVID-19 lockdown: case of western Lithuania region. Entrepreneurship Sustain Issues. (2021) 8:210–25. 10.9770/jesi.2021.8.3(12) DOI

Varotsos CA, Krapivin VF, Xue Y. Diagnostic model for the society safety under COVID-19 pandemic conditions. Saf Sci. (2021) 136:105164. 10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105164 PubMed DOI PMC

Howerton E, Ferrari MJ, Bjørnstad ON, Bogich TL, Borchering RK, Jewell CP, et al. . Synergistic interventions to control COVID-19: Mass testing and isolation mitigates reliance on distancing. PLoS Comput Biol. (2021) 17:e1009518. 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009518 PubMed DOI PMC

López Seguí F, Estrada Cuxart O, Mitjà I., Villar O, Hernández Guillamet G, Prat Gil N, Maria Bonet J, et al. . A cost-benefit analysis of the COVID-19 asymptomatic mass testing strategy in the North metropolitan area of Barcelona. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 18:7028. 10.3390/ijerph18137028 PubMed DOI PMC

Mbogo RW, Odhiambo JW. COVID-19 outbreak, social distancing and mass testing in Kenya-insights from a mathematical model. Afr Mat. (2021) 32:757–72. 10.1007/s13370-020-00859-1 DOI

Shimizu K, Kuniya T, Tokuda Y. Modeling population-wide testing of SARS-CoV-2 for containing COVID-19 pandemic in Okinawa, Japan. J Gen Fam Med. (2021) 22:173–81. 10.1002/jgf2.439 PubMed DOI PMC