Conservation strategies are rarely systematically evaluated, which reduces transparency, hinders the cost-effective deployment of resources, and hides what works best in different contexts. Using data on the iconic and critically endangered orangutan (Pongo spp.), we developed a novel spatiotemporal framework for evaluating conservation investments. We show that around USD 1 billion was invested between 2000 and 2019 into orangutan conservation by governments, nongovernmental organizations, companies, and communities. Broken down by allocation to different conservation strategies, we find that habitat protection, patrolling, and public outreach had the greatest return on investment for maintaining orangutan populations. Given the variability in threats, land-use opportunity costs, and baseline remunerations in different regions, there were differential benefits per dollar invested across conservation activities and regions. We show that although challenging from a data and analysis perspective, it is possible to fully understand the relationships between conservation investments and outcomes and the external factors that influence these outcomes. Such analyses can provide improved guidance toward a more effective biodiversity conservation. Insights into the spatiotemporal interplays between the costs and benefits driving effectiveness can inform decisions about the most suitable orangutan conservation strategies for halting population declines. Although our study focuses on the three extant orangutan species of Sumatra and Borneo, our findings have broad application for evidence-based conservation science and practice worldwide.

Austindo Nusantara Jaya Menara BTPN 40 Floor Jl Dr Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung Kav 5 5 5 6 Kawasan Mega Kuningan Jakarta 12950 Indonesia

Biology Department University of Ottawa Gendron Hall Room 160 30 Marie Curie Ottawa ON K1N 6N5 Canada

Bumitama Jl Melawai Raya No 10 RT 3 RW 1 Melawai Kec Kby Baru Kota Jakarta Selatan Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta 12160 Indonesia

Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science The University of Queensland Brisbane QLD 4072 Australia

Danau Girang Field Centre c o Sabah Wildlife Department Wisma MUIS Block B 5th Floor 88100 Kota Kinabalu Sabah Malaysia; Organisms and Environment Division Cardiff School of Biosciences Cardiff University Sir Martin Evans Building Museum Avenue Cardiff CF10 3 AX UK; Sustainable Places Research Institute Cardiff University 33 Park Place Cardiff CF10 3BA UK

Department of Biology Fach 618 University of Konstanz Universitätsstraße 10 78457 Konstanz Germany; Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior Bücklestraße 4 78464 Konstanz Germany; Department of Anthropology Winterthurerstrasse 190 University of Zurich 8057 Zurich Switzerland

Department of Biology Gedung Biologi Jalan Agatis Kampus IPB Dramaga Bogor 16680 Indonesia; Primate Research Center IPB University Jl Lodaya 2 5 Bogor 16151 Indonesia

Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology School of Anthropology and Conservation Marlowe Building University of Kent Canterbury Kent CT2 7NR UK

Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology School of Anthropology and Conservation Marlowe Building University of Kent Canterbury Kent CT2 7NR UK; Borneo Futures 8th Floor PGGMB Building Jalan Kianggeh Bandar Seri Begawan BS8111 Brunei Darussalam; Department of Ecology Faculty of Science Charles University Viničná 7 Prague 2 12844 Prague Czech Republic

Forum Konservasi Orangutan Kalimantan Barat Lab 515 Building 3rd Floor Jl Salihara No 41A Pasar Minggu Jakarta 12520 Indonesia

GFA KWF Kapuas Hulu Program Pontianak West Kalimantan Indonesia

Glendon College of York University 2275 Bayview Avenue Toronto ON M4N 3M6 Canada

Graduate School Department of Biology Universitas Nasional Jl Sawo Manila Pejaten Ps South Jakarta 12520 Indonesia

Graduate School of Environmental Management Pakuan University Jl Pakuan RT 02 RW 06 Tegallega Kecamatan Bogor Tengah Kota Bogor Jawa Barat 16129 Indonesia; Belantara Foundation Dimo Space Jl Timor No 6 RT 9 RW 4 Gondangdia Kec Menteng Kota Jakarta Pusat Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta 10350 Indonesia

Gunung Palung National Park Office Padu Banjar Kec Simpang Hilir Kabupaten Ketapang Kalimantan Barat 78857 Indonesia

Gunung Palung Orangutan Conservation Program P O Box G 1661 Massachusetts Avenue Lexington MA 02420 2020 USA

Gunung Palung Orangutan Conservation Program P O Box G 1661 Massachusetts Avenue Lexington MA 02420 2020 USA; Department of Anthropology Boston University 232 Bay State Road Boston MA 02215 USA; Department of Biology Boston University 5 Cummington Mall Room 101 Boston MA 02215 USA

HUTAN KOCP P O Box 17793 88874 Kota Kinabalu Sabah Malaysia; Borneo Futures 8th Floor PGGMB Building Jalan Kianggeh Bandar Seri Begawan BS8111 Brunei Darussalam

Natural Resources Institute University of Greenwich Chatham Maritime ME4 4TB UK

Orangutan Foundation 7 Kent Terrace London NW1 4RP UK

Orangutan Information Centre Bunga Sedap Malam XVIII C No 10 Medan Selayang Medan North Sumatra 20131 Indonesia

Planet Indonesia Webster Groves MO 63119 USA

Primate Research Institute Kyoto University Inuyama Aichi 484 8506 Japan

Queensland University of Technology 2 George Street Brisbane QLD 4000 Australia

Research Centre in Evolutionary Anthropology and Palaeoecology School of Natural Sciences and Psychology Liverpool John Moores University James Parsons Building Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK

Rhino and Forest Fund Auf dem Stein 2 77694 Kehl Germany

School of Biological and Environmental Sciences Tom Reilly Building Byrom Street Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool L3 3AF UK

School of Biological Sciences University of Aberdeen Tillydrone Avenue Aberdeen Aberdeenshire AB24 2TZ Scotland UK

Sustainability Institute for Regional Transformations 4483 Sage Hall 835 High Avenue Oshkosh WI 54901 USA

U S National Science Foundation 2415 Eisenhower Avenue Alexandria VA USA

Universitas Nahdlatul Ulama Sumatera Utara Jl Gaperta Ujung No 2 Tj Gusta Kec Medan Helvetia Kota Medan Sumatera Utara 20125 Indonesia

Universitas Nahdlatul Ulama Sumatera Utara Jl Gaperta Ujung No 2 Tj Gusta Kec Medan Helvetia Kota Medan Sumatera Utara 20125 Indonesia; Pesona Tropis Alam Indonesia Komplek Tasbi 2 Jl Ring Road Blk 5 No 21 A M P L A S Kec Medan Amplas Kota Medan Sumatera Utara 20122 Indonesia

Universitas Tanjungpura Jl Prof Dr H Jl Profesor Dokter H Hadari Nawawi Bansir Laut Kec Pontianak Tenggara Kota Pontianak Kalimantan Barat 78124 Indonesia

Universitas Tanjungpura Jl Prof Dr H Jl Profesor Dokter H Hadari Nawawi Bansir Laut Kec Pontianak Tenggara Kota Pontianak Kalimantan Barat 78124 Indonesia; Malaysian Environmental Consultants 82 Jalan Ampang Hilir 55000 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia

University of Michigan Department of Anthropology Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Program in the Environment School for Environment and Sustainability Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA

Vocabolo Ca' di Bracco Via Migianella 381 Loc Molino Vitelli 06019 Umbertide PG Italia

Wildlife Impact P O Box 31062 Portland OR 97231 USA

Wisconsin National Primate Research Center University of Wisconsin Madison Southwest Commuter Path Madison WI 53715 USA

World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia WWF Indonesia Gedung Graha Simatupang Tower 2 Unit C 7 Floor Jl Letjen TB Simatupang Kav 38 Jakarta Selatan 12540 Indonesia

WWF Malaysia Suite 1 6 W11 6th Floor CPS Tower Centre Point Complex No 1 Lorong Centre Point Pusat Bandar 88000 Kota Kinabalu Sabah Malaysia

Yayasan Titian Lestari Jl Komp Alex Griya Permai 1 Bangka Belitung Darat Kec Pontianak Tenggara Kota Pontianak Kalimantan Barat 78124 Indonesia; Yayasan SINTAS Jl Merdeka Barat No 665 Mariana Kec Pontianak Kota Kota Pontianak Kalimantan Barat 78243 Indonesia

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