BACKGROUND: Early marriage occurs in some regions of the world. Given that early marriage can have many negative consequences for girls by affecting their physical, mental, and social health, the purpose of this study was to investigate the reasons for early marriage from the perspective of women who had experienced it in Zahedan, Iran. METHODS: This qualitative research was conducted based on the qualitative content analysis method in 2020-2021. The target population included women aged 18-35 living in Zahedan who were married under the age of 18 years. Purposeful sampling was used to select the participants. In order to collect data, in-depth interviews were performed to decipher the reasons for early marriage from these women's perspectives. A total of 36 interviews were conducted from October to December 2020 until reaching theoretical saturation. Conventional content analysis was used to analyze the data and extract the relevant concepts and categories. RESULTS: The analysis of the interviews in this study revealed three main categories:(1) "early marriage as a transcendental coercion" ( early marriage as a cultural heritage and early marriage as a control tool, girls' weaknesses and inability to resist, dominant attitudes toward gender and gender restrictions), (2) "early marriage as a solution or a kind of problem solving" (escape from undesirable family environment, escape from financial poverty, and strategic escape from an unpleasant situation), and (3) "early marriage as a voluntary act" (real agency and imaginary agency). To substantiate these findings, we presented excerpts from the interviews conducted with the participants. CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest a multidimensional picture of early marriage. It seems that improving cultural conditions and empowering families and girls in various areas, including marriage, can reduce the rate of early marriage and/or at least mitigate its undesirable consequences.

Department of Demography and Geodemography Faculty of science Charles University Czechia Prague Czech Republic

Department of Social Sciences Faculty of Humanities University of Bojnord Bojnord Iran

Department of Social Sciences Faculty of Literature and Humanities University of Sistan and Baluchestan Zahedan Iran

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Tremayne S. Modernity and early marriage in Iran: a view from within. J Middle East Women’s Stud. 2006;2(1):65–94. doi: 10.2979/MEW.2006.2.1.65. DOI

Cohen TF, Strong B. The marriage and family experience: intimate relationships in a changing society. 14. Boston: Cengage learning; 2020.

Khalajabadi Farahani F, Rahimi A. Determinants of age at first marriage in selected countries of Asia & the Pacific Region; a systematic review. Sociol Rev. 2019;25(2):299–336. doi: 10.22059/jsr.2019.70357. DOI

Freedman R, Takeshita JY. Family planning in Taiwan: an experiment in social change. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2015.

Torabi F, Baschieri A. Ethnic differences in transition to first marriage in Iran: the role of marriage market, women’s socio-economic status, and process of development. Demographic Res. 2010;22:29–62. doi: 10.4054/DemRes.2010.22.2. DOI

Liversage A. Gender, conflict and subordination within the household: Turkish migrant marriage and divorce in Denmark. J Ethnic Migration Stud. 2012;38(7):1119–36. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2012.681455. DOI

Cislaghi B, Mackie G, Nkwi P, Shakya H. Social norms and child marriage in Cameroon: an application of the theory of normative spectrum. Glob Public Health. 2019;14(10):1479–94. doi: 10.1080/17441692.2019.1594331. PubMed DOI

Van Zantvliet PI, Kalmijn M, Verbakel E. Parental involvement in partner choice: the case of Turks and moroccans in the Netherlands. Eur Sociol Rev. 2014;30(3):387–98. doi: 10.1093/esr/jcu045. DOI

Rasul A, Nasir JA, Akhtar S, Hinde A. Factors associated with female age at first marriage: an analysis using all waves of the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey. PLoS ONE. 2022;17(3):e0264505. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264505. PubMed DOI PMC

Parh MYA, Sumy SA, Hossain MS. Determine the factors of female early age at first cohabitation: a case study of Bangladesh. Open J Stat. 2015;5(06):494. doi: 10.4236/ojs.2015.56051. DOI

Baruwa OJ, Amoateng AY, Biney E. Socio-demographic changes in age at first marriage in Malawi: evidence from Malawi demographic and Health Survey data, 1992–2016. J Biosoc Sci. 2020;52(6):832–45. doi: 10.1017/S0021932019000816. PubMed DOI

Ezra M. Factors associated with marriage and family formation processes in Southern Ethiopia. J Comp Family Stud. 2003;34(4):509–30. doi: 10.3138/jcfs.34.4.509. DOI

Aryal TR. Age at first marriage in Nepal: differentials and determinants. J Biosoc Sci. 2007;39(5):693–706. doi: 10.1017/S0021932006001775. PubMed DOI

Bates LM, Maselko J, Schuler SR. Women’s education and the timing of marriage and childbearing in the next generation: evidence from rural Bangladesh. Stud Fam Plann. 2007;38(2):101–12. doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4465.2007.00121.x. PubMed DOI

Rizvi A, Qureshi HIA. Causes and consequences of child marriages: a pakistani perspective. AL-QAWĀRĪR. 2022;3(2):43–54.

UNICEF . Child marriage in Eastern and Southern Africa: a statistical overview and reflections on ending the practice. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund; 2022.

Myers JHR. Breaking Vows: Early and Forced Marriage and Girls’ Education: International UK; 2011 [Available from: http://www.planuk.org/resources/documents/Breaking-VowsEarly-and-Forced-Marriage-and-Girls Education.

Buvinic M, Carey E. Leaving no one behind: CRVS, gender and the SDGs. 2019.

Bennouna C, Feldman B, Usman R, Adiputra R, Kusumaningrum S, Stark L. Using the three delays model to examine civil registration barriers in Indonesia. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(12):e0168405. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168405. PubMed DOI PMC

Peters BG. Civil registration and vital statistics as a tool to improve public management. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank; 2016.

UNICEF . Mapping of initiatives to end child marriage in South Asia. New York: United Nations Population Fund & United Nations Children’s Fund; 2016.

UNICEF. Child marriage global database: UNICEF; 2020

Rumble L, Peterman A, Irdiana N, Triyana M, Minnick E. An empirical exploration of female child marriage determinants in Indonesia. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):1–13. doi: 10.1186/s12889-018-5313-0. PubMed DOI PMC

Santhya KG, Ram U, Acharya R, Jejeebhoy SJ, Ram F, Singh A. Associations between early marriage and young women’s marital and reproductive health outcomes: evidence from India. Int Perspect Sex Reproduct Health. 2010:132–9. 10.1363/ipsrh.36.132.10. PubMed

Clark CJ, Silverman JG, Shahrouri M, Everson-Rose S, Groce N. The role of the extended family in women’s risk of intimate partner violence in Jordan. Soc Sci Med. 2010;70(1):144–51. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.024. PubMed DOI

Nguyen MC, Wodon Q. Impact of child marriage on literacy and education attainment in Africa. Washington, DC: UNICEF and UNESCO Statistics; 2014.

Jones GW. Changing marriage patterns in Asia. In: Zhao Z, Hayes AC, editors. Routledge handbook of asian demography. New York: Taylor and Francis; 2017.

Rosmiati E, Mustofa SB, Rahfiludin MZ, Effect of Early Marriage on Reproductive and Sexual Health. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal) Humanit Social Sci. 2022;5(1):5832–7. doi: 10.33258/birci.v5i1.4291. DOI

Schief M, Lin Q, Haenni S. Harmful traditional practices: child marriage, initiation rituals. FGM/C. Zurich: University of Zurich; 2018.

Gebre T, Hagos F, Teklu G, Fisseha M, Abera M. The prevalence of gender-based violence and harmful traditional practices against women in the Tigray Region, Ethiopia. J Asian Afr Stud. 2020;55(1):58–75. doi: 10.1177/002190961986. DOI

Delprato M, Akyeampong K, Sabates R, Hernandez-Fernandez J. On the impact of early marriage on schooling outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa and South West Asia. Int J Educational Dev. 2015;44:42–55. doi: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.06.001. DOI

Male C, Wodon Q. Girls’ education and child marriage in West and central Africa: trends, impacts, costs, and solutions. Forum Soc Econ. 2018;47(2):262–74. doi: 10.1080/07360932.2018.1451771. DOI

Bengesai AV, Amusa LB, Makonye F. The impact of girl child marriage on the completion of the first cycle of secondary education in Zimbabwe: a propensity score analysis. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(6):e0252413. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0252413. PubMed DOI PMC

Sheikhbardsiri H, Raeisi A, Khademipour G. Domestic violence against women working in four educational hospitals in Iran. J interpers Violence. 2020;35(21–22):5107–21. doi: 10.1177/0886260517719539. PubMed DOI

UNICEF. Early Marriage A. Harmful traditional practice a statistical exploration 2005: UNICEF; 2005.

Sezgin AU, Punamäki R-L. Impacts of early marriage and adolescent pregnancy on mental and somatic health: the role of partner violence. Arch Women Ment Health. 2020;23(2):155–66. doi: 10.1007/s00737-019-00960-w. PubMed DOI PMC

Hervish A, Feldman-Jacobs C. Who speaks for me? Ending child marriage (Population reference Bureau policy brief). Population reference bureau. 2011.

Lotfi R. Health consequences of early marriage in women. Women  Health Quarter. 2010;2:67–79.

Sagalova V, Nanama S, Zagre NM, Vollmer S. Long-term consequences of early marriage and maternity in West and Central Africa: Wealth, education, and fertility. J Global Health. 2021;11:13004. doi: 10.7189/jogh.11.13004. PubMed DOI PMC

Fan S, Koski A. The health consequences of child marriage: a systematic review of the evidence. BMC Publ Health. 2022;22(1):1–17. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-12707-x. PubMed DOI PMC

Rosydah I, Hernawaty T, Rafiyah I. The impact of early marriage on pregnancy: young women’s knowledge. J Maternity Care Reproductive Health. 2019; 10.36780/jmcrh.v2i2.66.

Elnakib S, Elsallab M, Wanis MA, Elshiwy S, Krishnapalan NP, Naja NA. Understanding the impacts of child marriage on the health and well-being of adolescent girls and young women residing in urban areas in Egypt. Reproduct Health. 2022;19(1):1–14. doi: 10.1186/s12978-021-01315-4. PubMed DOI PMC

Gage A. Coverage and effects of child marriage prevention activities in Amhara Region, Ethiopia: findings from a 2007 study. Chapel Hill: Measure Evaluation; 2009.

Kian-Thiébaut A. From motherhood to equal rights advocates: the weakening of patriarchal order. Iran Stud. 2005;38(1):45–66. doi: 10.1080/0021086042000336537. DOI

Hsieh H-F, Shannon SE. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qual Health Res. 2005;15(9):1277–88. doi: 10.1177/1049732305276687. PubMed DOI

Creswell JW, Poth CN. Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. 4. Thousand Oaks: Sage publications; 2018.

Pinheiro PS. Violence against children. Geneva: ATAR Roto Presse SA; 2006.

Mirzaee Z, Maarefvand M, Mousavi MT, Pourzand N, Hossienzadeh S, Khubchandani J. Stakeholders’ perspectives on girls’ early marriage in Maneh and Samalqan, Iran. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2021;122:105900. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105900. DOI

Josephine B-MB, Goodluck A. The causes of early marriage in the different States of the Niger-Delta Region. Glob Acad J Humanit Soc Sci. 2022; 10.36348/gajhss.2022.v04i03.003.

Chantler K, Trauma Recognition of and intervention in forced marriage as a form of violence and abuse. Violence  Abuse. 2012;13(3):176–83. doi: 10.1177/1524838012448. PubMed DOI

Gangoli G, McCarry M, Razak A. Child marriage or forced marriage? South asian communities in north east England. Child Soc. 2009;23(6):418–29. doi: 10.1111/j.1099-0860.2008.00188.x. DOI

Bartels SA, Michael S, Roupetz S, Garbern S, Kilzar L, Bergquist H, et al. Making sense of child, early and forced marriage among syrian refugee girls: a mixed methods study in Lebanon. BMJ global health. 2018;3(1):e000509. doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000509. PubMed DOI PMC

Tseng W-S, Hsu J. Culture and family: problems and therapy. London: Routledge; 2018.

Schaffnit SB, Urassa M, Lawson DW. “Child marriage” in context: exploring local attitudes towards early marriage in rural Tanzania. Sex Reproduct Health Matter. 2019;27(1):93–105. doi: 10.1080/09688080.2019.1571304. PubMed DOI PMC

Stark L. Poverty, consent, and choice in early marriage: ethnographic perspectives from urban Tanzania. Marriage  Family Rev. 2018;54(6):565–81. doi: 10.1080/01494929.2017.1403998. DOI

Grijns M, Horii H. Child marriage in a village in West Java (Indonesia): compromises between legal obligations and religious concerns. Asian J Law Soc. 2018;5(2):453–66. doi: 10.1017/als.2018.9. DOI

Montazeri S, Gharacheh M, Mohammadi N, Alaghband Rad J, Eftekhar Ardabili H. Determinants of early marriage from married girls’ perspectives in Iranian setting: a qualitative study. J Environ Public Health. 2016 doi: 10.1155/2016/8615929. PubMed DOI PMC

Kabir MR, Ghosh S, Shawly A. Causes of early marriage and its effect on reproductive health of young mothers in Bangladesh. Am J Appl Sci. 2019;16(9):289–97. doi: 10.3844/ajassp.2019.289.297. DOI

Saeedi S. Ethnographic study of the phenomenon of early marriage among afghan immigrants (Hazara tribe) in the two cities of Hamburg (Germany) and Tehran (Iran). Anthropol Res Iran 2017(13):73–93.