European wildlife has been subjected to intensifying levels of anthropogenic impact throughout the Holocene, yet the main genetic partitioning of many species is thought to still reflect the late-Pleistocene glacial refugia. We analyzed 26,342 nuclear SNPs of 464 wild boar (Sus scrofa) across the European continent to infer demographic history and reassess the genetic consequences of natural and anthropogenic forces. We found that population fragmentation, inbreeding and recent hybridization with domestic pigs have caused the spatial genetic structure to be heterogeneous at the local scale. Underlying local anthropogenic signatures, we found a deep genetic structure in the form of an arch-shaped cline extending from the Dinaric Alps, via Southeastern Europe and the Baltic states, to Western Europe and, finally, to the genetically diverged Iberian peninsula. These findings indicate that, despite considerable anthropogenic influence, the deeper, natural continental structure is still intact. Regarding the glacial refugia, our findings show a weaker signal than generally assumed, but are nevertheless suggestive of two main recolonization routes, with important roles for Southern France and the Balkans. Our results highlight the importance of applying genomic resources and framing genetic results within a species' demographic history and geographic distribution for a better understanding of the complex mixture of underlying processes.

Animal Breeding and Genomics Group Wageningen University Droevendaalsesteeg 1 6708 PD Wageningen The Netherlands

Animal Sciences Group Wageningen University De Elst 1 6708 WD Wageningen The Netherlands

Centre of Wildlife Ecology Simon Fraser University Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada

Department of Biology and CESAM Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies University of Aveiro Portugal e de Aveiro Portugal

Department of Chemistry and Bioscience Aalborg University Frederik Bajers Vej 7H 9220 Aalborg Denmark

Department of Fisheries Apiculture Wildlife Management and Special Zoology Faculty of Agriculture University of Zagreb Svetošimunska cesta 25 10000 Zagreb Croatia

Department of Game Management and Wildlife Biology Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Kamýcká 129 165 00 Praha 6 Czech Republic

Estació Biològica de Can Balasc Consorci del Parc Natural de la Serra de Collserola Ctra de l'Església 92 08017 Barcelona Spain

Estonian Environment Agency Rõõmu tee 6 50705 Tartu Estonia

Faculty of Environmental Protection Trg mladosti 7 3320 Velenje Slovenia

Faculty of Mathematics Natural Sciences and Information Technologies University of Primorska Glagoljaška 8 SI 6000 Koper Slovenia

Institute of Geography Russian Academy of Sciences Staromonetny per 29 Moscow 119017 Russia

Mammal Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences Stoczek 1 17 230 Białowieża Poland

Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning Dunajska 48 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Office Français pour la Biodiversité Monfort 01330 Birieux France

SaBio Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC Ronda de Toledo 12 13071 Ciudad Real Spain

Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania 400112 Cluj Napoca str Matei Corvin nr 4 Romania

Servicio de Análisis Investigación y Gestión de Animales Silvestres Facultad de Veterinaria Universidad Cardenal Herrera CEU CEU Universities C Tirant lo Blanc 7 46115 Alfara del Patriarca Valencia Spain

Slovenian Forestry Institute Večna pot 2 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

University of Sopron Bajcsy Zsilinszky u 4 H 9400 Sopron Hungary

Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Group Wageningen University Droevendaalsesteeg 3A 6708 PB Wageningen The Netherlands

Wildlife Ecology and Health group Edifici 5 Travessera del Turons 08193 Bellaterra Barcelona Spain

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