Child labour is the most common form of child abuse in the world today, with almost half of child workers employed in hazardous industries. The large-scale employment of children during the rapid industrialisation of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in England is well documented. During this period, the removal of pauper children from workhouses in cities to work as apprentices in rural mills in the North of England was commonplace. Whilst the experiences of some of these children have been recorded historically, this study provides the first direct evidence of their lives through bioarchaeological analysis. The excavation of a rural churchyard cemetery in the village of Fewston, North Yorkshire, yielded the skeletal remains of 154 individuals, including an unusually large proportion of children aged between 8 to 20 years. A multi-method approach was undertaken, including osteological and palaeopathological examination, stable isotope and amelogenin peptide analysis. The bioarchaeological results were integrated with historical data regarding a local textile mill in operation during the 18th-19th centuries. The results for the children were compared to those obtained from contemporaneous individuals of known identity (from coffin plates) of comparable date. Most of the children exhibited distinctive 'non-local' isotope signatures and a diet low in animal protein when compared to the named local individuals. These children also showed severe growth delays and pathological lesions indicative of early life adversity, as well as respiratory disease, which is a known occupational hazard of mill work. This study has provided unique insights into the harrowing lives of these children; born into poverty and forced to work long hours in dangerous conditions. This analysis provides a stark testimony of the impacts of industrial labour on the health, growth and mortality risk of children, with implications for the present as well as our understanding of the past.

BAAC Hertogenbosch The Netherlands

BioArCh Department of Archaeology University of York York United Kingdom

Department of Anthropology Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Department of Archaeology Durham University Durham United Kingdom

Department of Earth Sciences Durham University Durham United Kingdom

School of Applied Sciences University of Brighton Brighton United Kingdom

School of History Philosophy and Culture Oxford Brookes University Oxford United Kingdom

Washburn Heritage Centre Harrogate North Yorkshire United Kingdom

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Goose N, Honeyman K. Introduction. In: Goose N, Honeyman K, editors. Childhood and child labour in Industrial England. Diversity and agency, 1750–1914. Surrey: Ashgate; 2013. pp. 1–22.

Cunningham H. Children and childhood in Western society since 1500. London: Routledge. 2005.

Gaskell P. The manufacturing population of England. Its moral, social and physical conditions and the changes which have arisen through the use of steam machinery. London: Baldwin and Craddock; 1833.

Engels F. The condition of the working-class in England in 1844. With a preface written in 1892. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 1950.

Wohl AS. Endangered lives: public health in Victorian Britain. Cambridge Mass; Harvard University Press. 1983.

Second Report of the Commissioners. The state of large towns and populus districts. Vol 2. London: William Clowes and Sons; 1845.

Honeyman K. Child workers in England, 1780–1820: parish apprentices and the making of the early Industrial labour force. London: Routledge; 2007.

Cunningham H. The employment and unemployment of children in England c.1680- 1851, Past Present. 1990;126: 115–50.

Fitton RS, Wadsorth AP. The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 1758–1830: a study of the early factory system. Manchester: Manchester University Press; 1958.

Levene A. Parish apprenticeship and the old poor law in London. Econ Hist Rev. 2010;63(4): 915–941. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00485.x PubMed DOI PMC

Lane J. Apprenticeship in England, 1600–1914. London: UCL Press; 2005.

Sharpe P. Children as apprentices in Colyton, 1598–1830. Contin Chang. 1991;6(2): 253–270.

Withall CL. Shipped out? Pauper apprentices of port towns during the industrial revolution, 1750–1870. PhD Thesis, The University of Oxford. 2015. Available from: https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:519153d8-336b-4dac-bf37-4d6388002214.

Brown J. Memoir of Robert Blincoe, an orphan boy; sent from the workhouse of St Pancras, London, at seven years of age, to endure the horrors of a cotton-mill through his infancy and youth, with a minute detail of his sufferings, being the first memoir of the kind published. Manchester: J Doherty; 1832.

Humphries J. Childhoo and child labour in the British Industrial Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010.

Kirby P. Child workers and industrial health in Britain, 1780–1850. Woodbridge: Boydell Press; 2013.

Kirby P. Causes of short stature among coalmining children, 1823–1850. Econ Hist Rev. 1995;48 (4): 687–699.

Kirby P. Short stature among coalmining children: a rejoinder. Econ Hist Rev. 1997;50(3): 538–542.

Humphries J. Short stature among coalmining children: a comment. Econ Hist Rev. 1997;50(3): 531–537.

Sharp D. Child labour versus child work. Lancet. 1996;348(9026): 539 doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(05)64688-0 DOI

UNICEF. Child Labour. n.d. [cited 28/2/2023]. In: UNICEF Child Protection [Internet] Available from: https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-labour

Buglass J. The Church of St Michael and St Lawrence, Fewston, North Yorkshire: interim statement on the archaeological investigation. John Buglass Archaeological Services, on behalf of Washburn Heritage Group; 2009.

Caffell A, Holst M. Osteological analysis, Church of St Michael and St Lawrence, Fewston, North Yorkshire, York Osteoarchaeology, No. 1017, commissioned by Washburn Heritage Centre. 2017.

Gowland RL, Caffell AC, Newman S, Levene A, Holst M. Broken childhoods: rural and urban non-adult health during the Industrial Revolution in Northern England (eighteenth–nineteenth centuries). Bioarchaeol Int. 2018;2(1): 44–62. doi: 10.5744/bi.2018.1015 DOI

Alred D. Washburn Valley yesterday: a pictorial record of life in a Dales valley. Otley: Dalesman Publishing Co Ltd; 1997.

Holmes JH. The life and letters of Robert Collyer, 1823–1912. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company; 1917.

Fackrell M, Hart M. Children of the mills. In: Fewston Assemblage Editorial Group, editors. Life and death in the Washburn Valley: the story of the people of the Fewston Assemblage. Fewston: Washburn Heritage Centre; 2019. pp 127–138.

Collyer R. Some memories 1823–1912. Boston: American Unitarian Association; 1908.

British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology. Ethics and Standards. 2023 [28/2/2023]. In: BABAO Publications [Internet]. Available from: https://www.babao.org.uk/publications/ethics-and-standards/

McKinley JI. Compiling a skeletal inventory: disarticulated and co-mingled remains. In: Brickley M, McKinley JI, editors. Guidelines to the standards for recording human remains IFA Paper No 7. Southampton and Reading: BABAO and IFA; 2004. pp. 14–17.

Moorrees CFA, Fanning EA, Hunt EE. Formation and resorption of three deciduous teeth in children. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1963;21: 205–213. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1330210212 PubMed DOI

Moorrees CFA, Fanning EA, Hunt EE. Age variation of formation stages for the permanent teeth. J Dent Res. 1963;42: 1490–1502. PubMed

AlQahtani SJ, Hector MP, Liversidge HM. Brief communication: the London atlas of human tooth development and eruption. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2010;142(3): 481–490. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.21258 PubMed DOI

Maresh MM. Linear growth of long bones of extremities from infancy through adolescence; continuing studies. Am J Dis Child. 1955;89(6): 725–742. PubMed

Maresh MM. Measurements from roentgenograms, heart size, long bone lengths, bone, muscles and fat widths, skeletal maturation. In: Mccammon RW, editor. Human growth and development. Springfield: Charles C Thomas; 1970. pp. 155: 200.

Scheuer L, Black S. Developmental juvenile osteology. London: Academic Press; 2000.

Schutkowski H. Sex determination of infant and juvenile skeletons: I. morphognostic features. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1993;205: 199–205. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1330900206 PubMed DOI

Lewis ME. The bioarchaeology of children. Archaeological and forensic perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2007.

Stewart NA, Gerlach RF, Gowland RL, Gron KJ, Montgomery J. Sex determination of human remains from peptides in tooth enamel. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 2017;114(52): 13649–13654. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1714926115 PubMed DOI PMC

Phenice TW. A newly developed visual method of sexing the os pubis. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1969;30(2): 297–301. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1330300214 PubMed DOI

Buikstra J, Ubelaker D. editors. Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series No. 44. 1994.

Bruzek J. A method for visual determination of sex, using the human hip bone. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2002;117(2): 157–168. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.10012 PubMed DOI

Brooks S, Suchey JM. Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Acsádi-Nemeskéri and Suchey-Brooks methods. Hum Evol. 1990;5(3): 227–238.

Lovejoy CO, Meindl RS, Pryzbeck TR, Mensforth RP. Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1985;68: 15–28 doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1330680103 PubMed DOI

İşcan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis: white males. J Forensic Sci. 1984;29(4): 1094–1104. doi: 10.1520/jfs11776j PubMed DOI

İşcan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis: white females. J Forensic Sci. 1985;30(3): 853–863. doi: 10.1520/jfs11018j PubMed DOI

İşcan MY, Loth SR. Determination of age from the sternal rib in white males: a test of the phase method. J Forensic Sci. 1986;31(1): 122–132. PubMed

Brickley M, Ives R. Skeletal manifestations of infantile scurvy. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2006;129: 163–172. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20265 PubMed DOI

Brickley M, Ives R. The bioarchaeology of metabolic bone disease. London: Academic Press; 2008.

Ortner DJ. Identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains. New York: Academic Press; 2003.

Lewis ME. Paleopathology of children: identification of pathological conditions in the human skeletal remains of non-adults. London: Academic Press; 2017.

Roberts CA, Connell B. Guidance on recording palaeopathology. In: Brickley M, McKinley JI, editors. Guidelines to the standards for recording human remains, IFA Paper No. 7. Reading: BABAO and IFA; 2004. pp. 34–39.

Hillson S. Dental anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1996.

Ogden AR, Pinhasi R, White WJ. Gross enamel hypoplasia in molars from subadults in a 16th–18th century London graveyard. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2007;133: 957–966. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20608 PubMed DOI

Ogden A. Advances in the palaeopathology of teeth and jaws. In: Pinhasi R, Mays S, editors. Advances in human palaeopathology. New York: Wiley; 2008. pp. 282–307.

Porto IM, Laure HJ, de Sousa FB, Rosa JC, Gerlach RF. New techniques for the recovery of small amounts of mature enamel proteins. J Archaeol Sci. 2011;38: 3596–3604.

Porto IM, Laure HJ, Tykot RH, de Sousa FB, Rosa, JC, Gerlach RF. Recovery and identification of mature enamel proteins in ancient teeth. Eur J Oral Sci. 2011;119: 83–87. PubMed

Castiblanco GA, Rutishauser D, Ilag LL, Martignon S, Castellanos JE, Mejía W. Identification of proteins from human permanent erupted enamel. Eur J Oral Sci. 2015;123: 390–395. doi: 10.1111/eos.12214 PubMed DOI

Stewart NA, Molina GF, Mardegan Issa JP, Yates NA, Sosovicka M, Vieira AR, et al.. The identification of peptides by nanoLC-MS/MS from human surface tooth enamel following a simple acid etch extraction. R Soc Chem. 2016;6: 61673–61679. doi: 10.1039/C6RA05120K DOI

Parker GJ, Yip JM, Eerkens JW, Salemi M, Durbin-Johnson B, Kiesow C, et al.. Sex estimation using sexually dimorphic amelogenin protein fragments in human enamel. J Archaeol Sci. 2019;101: 169–180.

Gowland R, Stewart NA, Crowder KD, Hodson C, Shaw H, Gron KJ, et al.. Sex estimation of teeth at different developmental stages using dimorphic enamel peptide analysis. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2021;174(4): 859–869. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.24231 PubMed DOI

Montgomery J. Passports from the past: investigating human dispersals using strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel. Ann Hum Biol. 2010;37(3): 325–346. doi: 10.3109/03014461003649297 PubMed DOI

Bentley AR. Strontium isotopes from the earth to the archaeological skeleton: a review. J Archaeol Method Th. 2006;13(3): 135–187.

Montgomery J, Evans J, Cooper R. Resolving archaeological populations with Sr-isotope mixing models. Appl Geochem. 2007;22(7): 1502–1514.

D’Angela D, Longinell A. Oxygen isotopes in living mammal’s bone phosphate: further results. Chem Geol. 1991;86: 75–82.

Darling W. Hydrological factors in the interpretation of stable isotopic proxy data present and past: a European perspective. Quat Sci Rev. 2004;23: 743–770.

Darling W, Bath A, Gibson J, Rozanski K. Isotopes in water. In: Leng MJ, editor. Isotopes in palaeoenvironmental research, vol. 10. London: Springer; 2006. pp. 1–52.

Pollard A, Pellegrini M, Lee-Thorp J. Technical note: some observations on the conversion of dental enamel δ18op values to δ18ow to determine human mobility. Am J Phys Anthropol 2011;145(3): 499–504. PubMed

Chenery C, Müldner G, Evans J, Eckardt H, Lewis M. Strontium and stable isotope evidence for diet and mobility in Roman Gloucester, UK. J Archaeol Sci. 2010;37: 150–163.

Chenery CA, Pashley V, Lamb AL, Sloane HJ, Evans JA. The oxygen isotope relationship between the phosphate and structural carbonate fractions of human bioapatite. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 2012;26(3): 309–319. doi: 10.1002/rcm.5331 PubMed DOI

Evans J, Chenery C, Fitzpatrick A. Bronze Age childhood migration of individuals near Stonehenge, revealed by strontium and oxygen isotope tooth enamel analysis. Archaeometry. 2006:48(2): 309–321.

Montgomery J, Evans JA. Immigrants on the Isle of Lewis–combining traditional funerary and modern isotope evidence to investigate social differentiation, migration and dietary change in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland. In Gowland RL, Knüsel CJ. Editors. Social Archaeology of Funerary Remains. Oxbow: Oxford; 2006. pp. 122–142

Smits E, Millard AR, Nowell G, Pearson DG. Isotopic investigation of diet and residential mobility in the Neolithic of the Lower Rhine Basin. Eur J Archaeol. 2010;13(1): 5–31.

Bentley RA. Mobility, specialisation and community diversity in the Linearbandkeramik: isotopic evidence from the skeletons. In: Whittle A, Cummings V, editors. Going over: the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in north-west Europe. Proceedings of the British Academy: British Academy, London; 2007. pp. 117–40.

Jim S, Ambrose SH, Evershed RP. Stable carbon isotopic evidence for differences in the dietary origin of bone cholesterol, collagen and apatite: implications for their use in palaeodietary reconstruction. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 2004;68(1): 61–72.

Hedges REM, Clement JG, Thomas CDL, O’Connell TC. Collagen turnover in the adult femoral mid-shaft: modeled from anthopogenic radiocarbon tracer measurements. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2007;133(2): 808–816. PubMed

O’Leary MH. Carbon isotope fractionation in plants. Phytochemistry. 1981;20(4): 553–567.

Beaumont J, Geber J, Powers N, Wilson AS, Lee-Thorp J, Montgomery J, et al.. Victims and survivors: stable isotopes used to identify migrants from the Great Irish Famine to 19th century London. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2013;150: 87–98. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22179 PubMed DOI

Beaumont J, Montgomery J. The great Irish famine: identifying starvation in the tissues of victims using stable isotope analysis of bone and incremental dentine collagen. PLoS One. 2016: doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160065 PubMed DOI PMC

Marshall W. The review and abstracts of the county reports to the Board of Agriculture Western Departments 2. Newton Abbot: David and Charles reprint.

Bocherens H, Drucker D. Trophic level isotopic enrichment of carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen: case studies from recent and ancient terrestrial ecosystems. Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2003;13(1–2): 46–53.

Schoeninger MJ, DeNiro MJ. Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 1984;48(4): 625–639.

Longin R. New method of collagen extraction for radiocarbon dating. Nature. 1971;230: 241–242 doi: 10.1038/230241a0 PubMed DOI

Brown TA, Nelson DE, Vogel JS, Southon JR. Improved collagen extraction by modified Longin method. Radiocarbon. 1988;30(2): 171–177.

Bleasdale M, Ponce P, Radini A, Wilson AS, Doherty S, Daley P, et al.. Multidisciplinary investigations of the diets of two post-medieval populations from London using stable isotopes and microdebris analysis. Archaeol Anthrop Sci. 2019;11(11): 6161–6181. doi: 10.1007/s12520-019-00910-8 PubMed DOI PMC

Kragten J. Calculating standard deviations and confidence intervals with a universally applicable spreadsheet technique. Analyst. 1994;119: 2161–2165.

Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan PD. PAST: paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontol Electronica. 2001;4(1): art 4, 9

Kendall E, Montgomery J, Evans J, Stantis C, Mueller V. Mobility, mortality, and the middle ages: identification of migrant individuals in a 14th century Black Death cemetery population. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2013;150(2): 210–222. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22194 PubMed DOI

Trickett MA. A tale of two cities: diet, health and migration in post-medieval Coventry and Chelsea through biographical reconstruction, osteoarchaeology and isotope biogeochemistry. PhD Thesis, Durham University. 2006. Available from: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1330/

Fackrell K. In search of Daniel Fox. In: Fewston Assemblage Editorial Group, editors. Life and death in the Washburn Valley: the story of the people of the Fewston Assemblage. Fewston: Washburn Heritage Centre; 2019. pp 69–72.

Snoeck C, Ryan S, Pouncett J, Pellegrini M, Claeys P, Wainwright AN, et al.. Towards a biologically available strontium isotope baseline for Ireland. Sci Total Environ. 2019;136248. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136248 PubMed DOI

Fowler A, Robbie JA. The geology of the country around Dungannon. Belfast: HMSO; 1961.

Evans JA, Chenery CA, Montgomery J. A summary of strontium and oxygen isotope variation in archaeological human tooth enamel excavated from Britain. J Anal At Spectrom. 2012;27: 754–764.

Neil S, Montgomery J, Evans J, Cook GT, Scarre C. Land use and mobility during the Neolithic in Wales explored using isotope analysis of tooth enamel. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2017;164: 371–393. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.23279 PubMed DOI PMC

Müldner GD, Frémondeau J, Evans AJ, Rippon S. Putting South-West England on the (strontium isotope) map: a possible origin for highly radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr values from southern Britain. J Archaeol Sci. 2022;144: 105628.

Montgomery J, Evans JA, Towers J. Strontium isotopic analysis. In: Parker Pearson M, Sheridan A, Jay M, Chamberlain A, et al.. editors. The Beaker People: isotopes, mobility and diet in prehistoric Britain. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Prehistoric Society Research Paper 7; 2019. pp. 371–408.

Neal S. The search for Skeleton 88. In: Fewston Assemblage Editorial Group, editors. Life and death in the Washburn Valley: the story of the people of the Fewston Assemblage. Fewston: Washburn Heritage Centre; 2019. pp 125–126.

Harker R. Timble Man: Diaries of a Dalesman. Lancashire UK: Hendon Publishing Co Ltd.

Allen M, Poggiali D, Whitaker K, Marshall TR, Kievit RA. Raincloud plots: a multi-platform tool for robust data visualization. Wellcome Open Res. 2019;4: 63. doi: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15191.1 PubMed DOI PMC

Müldner G, Richards MP. Diet and diversity at later medieval Fishergate: the isotopic evidence. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2007;134: 162–174. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20647 PubMed DOI

Richards M. Palaeodietary reconstruction. In: Brickley M, Buteaux S, Adams J, Cherrington R, editors. St Martin’s uncovered: investigations in the churchyard of St Martin’s-in-the-Bull Ring, Birmingham, 2001. Oxford: Oxbow Books; 2006. pp. 147–151.

Dhaliwal K, Rando C, Reade H, Jourdan A-L, Stevens RE. Socioeconomic differences in diet: an isotopic examination of post‐Medieval Chichester, West Sussex. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2020;171(4): 584–597. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.23984 PubMed DOI

Nitsch EK, Humphrey LT, Hedges REM. The effect of parity status on δ15N: looking for the “pregnancy effect” in 18th and 19th century London. J Archaeol Sci. 2010;37: 3191–3199.

Pinhasi R, Shaw P, White B, Ogden AR. Morbidity, rickets and long-bone growth in post-medieval Britain—a cross-population analysis. Ann Hum Biol. 2006;33: 372–389. doi: 10.1080/03014460600707503 PubMed DOI

Ives R, Humphrey L. Patterns of long bone growth in a mid-19th century documented sample of the urban poor from Bethnal Green, London, UK. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2017;163: 173–186. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.23198 PubMed DOI

Roberts and Cox 2003 Roberts C, Cox M. Health and disease in Britain: from prehistory to the present day. Stroud: Sutton Publishing Ltd.; 2003.

Garnett E. The navvies in the Washburn Valley. The Leeds Mercury. 1879. Feb 25. British Library Newspapers. Available from: https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GDCS&u=duruni&id=GALE|BB3201724756&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GDCS&asid=b15c28ce

International Labour Office. Children in hazardous work. What we know and what we need to do. International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). Geneva: Report, International Labour Office; 2011.

International Labour Office. Towards the urgent elimination of hazardous child labour. International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). Geneva: Report, International Labour Office; 2018.

Davies-Barrett AM, Antoine D, Roberts CA. Inflammatory periosteal reaction on ribs associated with lower respiratory tract disease: a method for recording prevalence from sites with differing preservation. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2019;168: 530–542. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.23769 PubMed DOI PMC

Riccomi G, Casaccia J, Minozzi S, Felici C, Campana S, Giuffra V. Maxillary sinusitis as a respiratory health indicator: a bioarchaeological investigation into medieval central Italy. Int J Paleopathol. 2021;35: 40–48. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpp.2021.09.001 PubMed DOI

Jones 2001, 69 Jones G. Captain of all these men of death: the history of tuberculosis in nineteenth and twentieth century Ireland. Boston: Brill; 2001. PubMed

Gowland RL. Entangled lives: implications of the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) hypothesis for bioarcheology and the life course. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2015;158: 530–540. PubMed

Gowland RL, Caldwell J. The developmental origins of health and disease. Implications for paleopathology. In: Grauer A, editor. The Routledge handbook of paleopathology. London: Routledge; 2022. pp. 520–540.

Villalpando S, Prado MD. Interrelation among dietary energy and fat intakes, maternal body fatness, and milk total lipid in humans. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 1999;4: 285–295. doi: 10.1023/a:1018702030259 PubMed DOI

Barker DJP. Developmental origins of chronic disease. Public Health. 2012;126: 185–189. PubMed

Gowland RL. ‘A mass of crooked alphabets’: the construction and othering of working class bodies in Industrial England. In: Stone P, editor, Bioarchaeological analyses and bodies. New York: Springer; 2018. pp. 147–163.

Wells 2010 Wells JK. Maternal capital and the metabolic ghetto: an evolutionary perspective on the transgenerational basis of health inequalities. Am J Hum Biol. 2010;22(1): 1–17 doi: 10.1002/ajhb.20994 PubMed DOI

International Labour Organization Brief. The elimination of child labour and its root causes–the guidance offered by the ILO MNE Declaration. April 2022. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_emp/—emp_ent/—multi/documents/publication/wcms_844331.pdf