INTRODUCTION: Despite the health benefits, a large proportion of girls and boys in Europe do not travel to school actively. A better understanding of the correlates associated with this behavior could guide interventions. This study examines perceived social and environmental correlates of active travel to school (ACTS) from the 2017/18 Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) survey in four European countries, with a special emphasis on gender differences (n = 22,023). METHODS: Logistic regression was conducted to analyze associations between the perceived importance of each correlate and ACTS behavior for 11-, 13-, and 15-year-old girls and boys from Germany, Czechia, Poland, and Slovakia. All models were adjusted for age, family affluence, and meeting World Health Organization recommendations for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. RESULTS: Rates of ACTS significantly differed between girls and boys. In Czechia, 65% of girls and boys traveled to school actively, followed by Slovakia (61.4% girls and 58.4% boys), Poland (57.7% girls and 60.2% boys), and Germany (42.6% girls and 48.6% boys). Girls were less likely to actively travel to school compared to boys (odds ratio [OR]: 0.92, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.87-0.97). Increasing age (OR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.93-0.97) and a greater distance to school index (OR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.88-0.90) were both negatively associated with ACTS. The perceived importance of living closer to school and of road and neighborhood safety was positively associated with ACTS, with a stronger association in boys than in girls for neighborhood safety. On the contrary, the perceived importance of having people to walk with was negatively associated with ACTS, with a stronger association in girls (OR: 0.74, 95% CI: 0.65-0.84) than in boys (OR: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.66-0.88). DISCUSSION: This study provides insights into perceived social and environmental correlates associated with ACTS behavior. Future research should include gender-specific perceptions and more in-depth investigations of correlates encouraging ACTS, especially considering social aspects, safety issues, and the structuring of the environment in different cultural settings.

CIPER Faculty of Human Kinetics University of Lisbon Lisbon Portugal

Department of Child and Adolescent Health Institute of Mother and Child Warsaw Poland

Department of Health Promotion and Development University of Bergen Bergen Norway

Department of Health Psychology and Research Methodology Faculty of Medicine P J Safarik University Košice Slovakia

Department of Humanization in Medicine and Sexology University of Zielona Gora Collegium Medicum Zielona Góra Poland

Department of Natural and Sociological Sciences Heidelberg University of Education Heidelberg Germany

Department of Public and Occupational Health Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute Amsterdam UMC Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam Netherlands

Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies Faculty of Physical Culture Palacky University Olomouc Olomouc Czechia

Department of Sport Science University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria

Department of Teacher Education NLA University College Bergen Norway

Institute of Mother and Child Foundation Warsaw Poland

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Eime RM, Young JA, Harvey JT, Charity MJ, Payne WR, A. systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2013) 10:98. 10.1186/1479-5868-10-98 PubMed DOI PMC

Barnett A, Akram M, Sit CH-P, Mellecker R, Carver A, Cerin E. Predictors of healthier and more sustainable school travel mode profiles among Hong Kong adolescents. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2019) 16:48. 10.1186/s12966-019-0807-4 PubMed DOI PMC

Marques A, Henriques-Neto D, Peralta M, Martins J, Demetriou Y, Schönbach DM, et al. . Prevalence of Physical Activity among Adolescents from 105 Low, Middle, and High-income Countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17:3145. 10.3390/ijerph17093145 PubMed DOI PMC

Kalman M, Inchley J, Sigmundova D, Iannotti RJ, Tynjälä JA, Hamrik Z, et al. . Secular trends in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in 32 countries from 2002 to 2010: a cross-national perspective. Eur J Public Health. (2015) 25 Suppl 2:37–40. 10.1093/eurpub/ckv024 PubMed DOI

Cooper AR, Goodman A, Page AS, Sherar LB, Esliger DW, van Sluijs EM, et al. . Objectively measured physical activity and sedentary time in youth: the International children's accelerometry database (ICAD). Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2015) 12:113. 10.1186/s12966-015-0274-5 PubMed DOI PMC

World Health Organization . Promoting physical activity through schools: policy brief. Geneva: WHO; (2022).

Inchley J, Currie D, Budisavljevic S, Torsheim T, Jåstad A, Cosma A. Findings from the 2017/2018 health behaviour in school-aged children (HBSC). Survey in Europe and Canada (2020).

Guthold R, Stevens GA, Riley LM, Bull FC. Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: a pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1·6 million participants. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. (2020) 4:23–35. 10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30323-2 PubMed DOI PMC

Larouche R, Saunders TJ, Faulkner GE, Colley R, Tremblay M. Associations between active school transport and physical activity, body composition, and cardiovascular fitness: a systematic review of 68 studies. J Phys Act Health. (2014) 11:206–27. 10.1123/jpah.2011-0345 PubMed DOI

Villa-González E, Rosado-López S, Barranco-Ruiz Y, Herrador-Colmenero M, Cadenas-Sánchez C, Santos MP, et al. . Objective measurement of the mode of commuting to school using GPS: a pilot study. Sustainability. (2019) 11:5395. 10.3390/su11195395 PubMed DOI

Peralta M, Henriques-Neto D, Bordado J, Loureiro N, Diz S, Marques A. Active commuting to school and physical activity levels among 11 to 16 Year-Old Adolescents from 63 Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17:1276. 10.3390/ijerph17041276 PubMed DOI PMC

Dalene KE, Anderssen SA, Andersen LB, Steene-Johannessen J, Ekelund U, Hansen BH, et al. . Cross-sectional and prospective associations between sleep, screen time, active school travel, sports/exercise participation and physical activity in children and adolescents. BMC Public Health. (2018) 18:705. 10.1186/s12889-018-5610-7 PubMed DOI PMC

Lubans DR, Boreham CA, Kelly P, Foster CE. The relationship between active travel to school and health-related fitness in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2011) 8:5. 10.1186/1479-5868-8-5 PubMed DOI PMC

Pang B, Kubacki K, Rundle-Thiele S. Promoting active travel to school: a systematic review (2010-2016). BMC Public Health. (2017) 17:638. 10.1186/s12889-017-4648-2 PubMed DOI PMC

Salmon J, Timperio A. Prevalence, trends and environmental influences on child and youth physical activity. Med Sport Sci. (2007) 50:183–99. 10.1159/000101391 PubMed DOI

Fyhri A, Hjorthol R, Mackett RL, Fotel TN, Kyttä M. Children's active travel and independent mobility in four countries: Development, social contributing trends and measures. Transport Policy. (2011) 18:703–10. 10.1016/j.tranpol.2011.01.005 DOI

Grize L, Bringolf-Isler B, Martin E, Braun-Fahrländer C. Trend in active transportation to school among Swiss school children and its associated factors: three cross-sectional surveys 1994, 2000 and 2005. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2010) 7:28. 10.1186/1479-5868-7-28 PubMed DOI PMC

Pavelka J, Sigmundová D, Hamrík Z, Kalman M, Sigmund E, Mathisen F. Trends in active commuting to school among Czech schoolchildren from 2006 to 2014. Cent Eur J Public Health. (2017) 25 Suppl 1:S21–5. 10.21101/cejph.a5095 PubMed DOI

Reimers AK, Marzi I, Schmidt SC, Niessner C, Oriwol D, Worth A, et al. . Trends in active commuting to school from 2003 to 2017 among children and adolescents from Germany: the MoMo Study. Eur J Public Health. (2021) 31:373–8. 10.1093/eurpub/ckaa141 PubMed DOI

Haug E, Smith OR, Bucksch J, Brindley C, Pavelka J, Hamrik Z, et al. . 12-Year trends in active school transport across four European countries-findings from the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 18:2118. 10.3390/ijerph18042118 PubMed DOI PMC

González SA, Aubert S, Barnes JD, Larouche R, Tremblay MS. Profiles of Active Transportation among Children and Adolescents in the Global Matrix 3.0 Initiative: A 49-Country Comparison. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17:5887. 10.3390/ijerph17165997 PubMed DOI PMC

McDonald NC, Brown AL, Marchetti LM, Pedroso MSUS. school travel, 2009 an assessment of trends. Am J Prev Med. (2011) 41:146–51. 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.04.006 PubMed DOI

van der Ploeg HP, Merom D, Corpuz G, Bauman AE. Trends in Australian children traveling to school 1971-2003: burning petrol or carbohydrates? Prev Med. (2008) 46:60–2. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.06.002 PubMed DOI

Marzi I, Demetriou Y, Reimers AK. Social and physical environmental correlates of independent mobility in children: a systematic review taking sex/gender differences into account. Int J Health Geogr. (2018) 17:24. 10.1186/s12942-018-0145-9 PubMed DOI PMC

Rothman L, Macpherson AK, Ross T, Buliung RN. The decline in active school transportation (AST): A systematic review of the factors related to AST and changes in school transport over time in North America. Prev Med. (2018) 111:314–22. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.11.018 PubMed DOI

Ikeda E, Stewart T, Garrett N, Egli V, Mandic S, Hosking J, et al. . Built environment associates of active school travel in New Zealand children and youth: A systematic meta-analysis using individual participant data. J Transp Health. (2018) 9:117–31. 10.1016/j.jth.2018.04.007 DOI

Kobel S, Wartha O, Steinacker JM. Correlates of active transport to school in German primary school children. Dtsch Z Sportmed. (2019) 2019:67–74. 10.5960/dzsm.2019.369 DOI

Schönbach DM, Brindley C, Reimers AK, Marques A, Demetriou Y. Socio-demographic correlates of cycling to school among 12- to 15-year olds in southern Germany. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17:9269. 10.3390/ijerph17249269 PubMed DOI PMC

Bucksch J, Kopcakova J, Inchley J, Troped PJ, Sudeck G, Sigmundova D, et al. . Associations between perceived social and physical environmental variables and physical activity and screen time among adolescents in four European countries. Int J Public Health. (2019) 64:83–94. 10.1007/s00038-018-1172-9 PubMed DOI

Ikeda E, Hinckson E, Witten K, Smith M. Associations of children's active school travel with perceptions of the physical environment and characteristics of the social environment: A systematic review. Health Place. (2018) 54:118–31. 10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.09.009 PubMed DOI

Macdonald L, McCrorie P, Nicholls N, Olsen JR. Active commute to school: does distance from school or walkability of the home neighbourhood matter? A national cross-sectional study of children aged 10-11 years, Scotland, UK. BMJ Open. (2019) 9:e033628. 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-033628 PubMed DOI PMC

Mehdizadeh M, Mamdoohi A, Nordfjaern T. Walking time to school, children's active school travel and their related factors. J Transp Health. (2017) 6:313–26. 10.1016/j.jth.2017.01.012 PubMed DOI

Cui Z, Bauman A, Dibley MJ. Temporal trends and correlates of passive commuting to and from school in children from 9 provinces in China. Prev Med. (2011) 52:423–7. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.04.005 PubMed DOI PMC

Ham SA, Martin S, Kohl HW. Changes in the percentage of students who walk or bike to school-United States, 1969 and 2001. J Phys Act Health. (2008) 5:205–15. 10.1123/jpah.5.2.205 PubMed DOI

Schönbach DM, Altenburg TM, Marques A, Chinapaw MJ, Demetriou Y. Strategies and effects of school-based interventions to promote active school transportation by bicycle among children and adolescents: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2020) 17:138. 10.1186/s12966-020-01035-1 PubMed DOI PMC

Yang Y, Xue H, Liu S, Wang Y. Is the decline of active travel to school unavoidable by-products of economic growth and urbanization in developing countries? Sustain Cities Soc. (2019) 47:101446. 10.1016/j.scs.2019.101446 PubMed DOI PMC

Chillón P, Hales D, Vaughn A, Gizlice Z, Ni A, Ward DS, et al. . cross-sectional study of demographic, environmental and parental barriers to active school travel among children in the United States. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2014) 11:61. 10.1186/1479-5868-11-61 PubMed DOI PMC

Mandic S, La Leon de, Barra S, García Bengoechea E, Stevens E, Flaherty C, Moore A, et al. . Personal, social and environmental correlates of active transport to school among adolescents in Otago, New Zealand. J Sci Med Sport. (2015) 18:432–7. 10.1016/j.jsams.2014.06.012 PubMed DOI

Panter J, Guell C, Humphreys D, Ogilvie D. Title: Can changing the physical environment promote walking and cycling? A systematic review of what works and how. Health Place. (2019) 58:102161. 10.1016/j.healthplace.2019.102161 PubMed DOI PMC

Pinto Ad, Claumann GS, Angelo HC de, Menezes EC, Dias DT, Pelegrini A. Active commuting to school and associated factors among adolcements: a systematic review. J Phys Educ. (2017) 28:59. 10.4025/jphyseduc.v28i1.2859 DOI

Colley M, Buliung RN. Gender differences in school and work commuting mode through the life cycle: exploring trends in the greater Toronto and Hamilton area, 1986 to 2011. Transp Res Rec. (2016) 2598:102–9. 10.3141/2598-12 DOI

Reimers AK, Jekauc D, Peterhans E, Wagner MO, Woll A. Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of active commuting to school in a nationwide representative sample of German adolescents. Prev Med. (2013) 56:64–9. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.11.011 PubMed DOI

Larsen K, Buliung RN, Faulkner GE. School travel route measurement and built environment effects in models of children's school travel behavior. JTLU. (2015) 9:5–23. 10.5198/jtlu.2015.782 PubMed DOI

Hollein T, Vašíčková J, Bucksch J, Kalman M, Sigmundová D, van Dijk JP. School physical activity policies and active transport to school among pupils in the Czech Republic. J Transp Health. (2017) 6:306–12. 10.1016/j.jth.2017.07.008 DOI

Currie C, Inchley J, Molcho M, Lenz M, Veselska Z, Wild F. Health behaviour in school-aged children (HBSC) study protocol: background, methodology and mandatory items for the 2013/14 survey: Child and Adolescent Health Research Unit (CAHRU) (2014).

Meron D, Rissel C, Reinten-Reynolds T, Hardy LL. Changes in active travel of school children from 2004 to 2010 in New South Wales, Australia. Prev Med. (2011) 53:408–10. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.09.017 PubMed DOI

Ommundsen Y, Klasson-Heggebø L, Anderssen SA. Psycho-social and environmental correlates of location-specific physical activity among 9- and 15- year-old Norwegian boys and girls: the European Youth Heart Study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2006) 3:32. 10.1186/1479-5868-3-32 PubMed DOI PMC

Kleszczewska D, Mazur J, Bucksch J, Dzielska A, Brindley C, Michalska A. Active transport to school may reduce psychosomatic symptoms in school-aged children: data from nine countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17:8709. 10.3390/ijerph17238709 PubMed DOI PMC

Boyce W, Torsheim T, Currie C, Zambon A. The Family Affluence Scale as a measure of national wealth: validation of an adolescent self-report Measure. Soc Indic Res. (2006) 78:473–87. 10.1007/s11205-005-1607-6 DOI

Currie C, Molcho M, Boyce W, Holstein B, Torsheim T, Richter M. Researching health inequalities in adolescents: the development of the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) family affluence scale. Soc Sci Med. (2008) 66:1429–36. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.11.024 PubMed DOI

Torsheim T, Cavallo F, Levin KA, Schnohr C, Mazur J, Niclasen B, et al. . Psychometric validation of the revised Family Affluence Scale: a latent variable approach. Child Indic Res. (2016) 9:771–84. 10.1007/s12187-015-9339-x PubMed DOI PMC

Biddle SJ, Gorely T, Pearson N, Bull FC. An assessment of self-reported physical activity instruments in young people for population surveillance: Project ALPHA. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2011) 8:1. 10.1186/1479-5868-8-1 PubMed DOI PMC

Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S, Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G, et al. . World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br J Sports Med. (2020) 54:1451–62. 10.1136/bjsports-2020-102955 PubMed DOI PMC

IBM . SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corporation; (2017).

Masoumi HE. Associations of built environment and children's physical activity: a narrative review. Rev Environ Health. (2017) 32:315–31. 10.1515/reveh-2016-0046 PubMed DOI

Masoumi HE, Zanoli G, Papageorgiou A, Smaga S, Miloš A, van Rooijen M, et al. . Patterns of children's travel to school, their body weight, spatial factors, and perceptions: A survey on nine European cities. GeoScape. (2017) 11:52–75. 10.1515/geosc-2017-0005 DOI

Scheiner J, Huber O, Lohmüller S. Children's mode choice for trips to primary school: a case study in German suburbia. Travel Behav Soc. (2019) 15:15–27. 10.1016/j.tbs.2018.09.006 DOI

Madarasová Gecková A, Dankulincová Z. Národná správa o zdraví a so zdravím súvisiacom správaní 11-, 13-a 15-ročných školákov na základe prieskumu uskutočneného v roku 2017/2018 v rámci medzinárodneho projektu (2019).

Mazur J, Oblacińska A, Jodkowska M. Physical activity of school children aged 9–17 (2013).

Zembura P, Korcz A, Cieśla E, Gołdys A, Nał?cz H. Results from Poland's 2018 Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth. J Phys Act Health. (2018) 15:S395–7. 10.1123/jpah.2018-0540 PubMed DOI

Panter JR, Jones AP, van Sluijs EM. Environmental determinants of active travel in youth: a review and framework for future research. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2008) 5:34. 10.1186/1479-5868-5-34 PubMed DOI PMC

Trapp GS, Giles-Corti B, Christian HE, Bulsara M, Timperio AF, McCormack GR, et al. . On your bike! a cross-sectional study of the individual, social and environmental correlates of cycling to school. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2011) 8:123. 10.1186/1479-5868-8-123 PubMed DOI PMC

Bosch LS, Wells JC, Lum S, Reid AM. Associations of the objective built environment along the route to school with children's modes of commuting: A multilevel modelling analysis (the SLIC study). PLoS ONE. (2020) 15:e0231478. 10.1371/journal.pone.0231478 PubMed DOI PMC

Voorhees CC, Ashwood S, Evenson KR, Sirard JR, Rung AL, Dowda M, et al. . Neighborhood design and perceptions: relationship with active commuting. Med Sci Sports Exerc. (2010) 42:1253–60. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181cd5dfd PubMed DOI PMC

Panter J, Corder K, Griffin SJ, Jones AP, van Sluijs EM. Individual, socio-cultural and environmental predictors of uptake and maintenance of active commuting in children: longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2013) 10:83. 10.1186/1479-5868-10-83 PubMed DOI PMC

Verhoeven H, Simons D, van Dyck D, van Cauwenberg J, Clarys P, Bourdeaudhuij I de, et al. . Psychosocial and environmental correlates of walking, cycling, public transport and passive transport to various destinations in Flemish older adolescents. PLoS ONE. (2016) 11:e0147128. 10.1371/journal.pone.0147128 PubMed DOI PMC

Burgueño R, González-Cutre D, Sevil-Serrano J, Herrador-Colmenero M, Segura-Díaz JM, Medina-Casaubón J, et al. . Validation of the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction in Active Commuting to and from School (BPNS-ACS) Scale in Spanish young people. J Transp Health. (2020) 16:100825. 10.1016/j.jth.2020.100825 DOI

Lu W, McKyer EL, Lee C, Goodson P, Ory MG, Wang S. Perceived barriers to children's active commuting to school: a systematic review of empirical, methodological and theoretical evidence. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. (2014) 11:140. 10.1186/s12966-014-0140-x PubMed DOI PMC

Villa-González E, Barranco-Ruiz Y, Evenson KR, Chillón P. Systematic review of interventions for promoting active school transport. Prev Med. (2018) 111:115–34. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.02.010 PubMed DOI

Maddison R, Jiang Y, Vander Hoorn S, Ni Mhurchu C, Exeter D, Utter J. Perceived versus actual distance to local physical-activity facilities: does it really matter? J Phys Act Health. (2010) 7:323–32. 10.1123/jpah.7.3.323 PubMed DOI

Duncan SC, Strycker LA, Chaumeton NR, Cromley EK. Relations of neighborhood environment influences, physical activity, and active transportation to/from school across African American, Latino American, and white girls in the United States. Int J Behav Med. (2016) 23:153–61. 10.1007/s12529-015-9508-9 PubMed DOI PMC

Larouche R, Mammen G, Rowe DA, Faulkner G. Effectiveness of active school transport interventions: a systematic review and update. BMC Public Health. (2018) 18:206. 10.1186/s12889-017-5005-1 PubMed DOI PMC

Schönbach DM, Vondung C, Hidding LM, Altenburg TM, Chinapaw MJ, Demetriou Y. Gender influence on students, parents, and teachers' perceptions of what children and adolescents in Germany need to cycle to school: a Concept Mapping Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2020) 17:6872. 10.3390/ijerph17186872 PubMed DOI PMC