The mechanisms of interactions between apex and smaller carnivores may range from competition to facilitation. Conversely, interactions between predators and prey are mainly driven by the prey reducing the likelihood of encounters with predators. In this study, we investigated (1) the spatiotemporal interactions between an apex (the snow leopard) and a meso-predator (the red fox), and (2) the temporal interactions between the snow leopard and its potential prey (Siberian ibex, argali, Asian wild ass, Tolai hare) through camera trapping in the Mongolian Great Gobi-A. The probability of occurrence for the red fox was higher in the presence of the snow leopard than in its absence. Moreover, the red fox activity pattern matched that of the snow leopard, with both species mostly active at sunset. This positive spatiotemporal interaction suggests that the presence of the snow leopard may be beneficial for the red fox in terms of scavenging opportunities. However, other explanations may also be possible. Amongst prey, the Siberian ibex and the argali were mainly active during the day, whereas the Asian wild ass and the Tolai hare were more nocturnal. These findings suggest that potential prey (especially the Siberian ibex and the argali) may shape their behavior to decrease the opportunity for encounters with the snow leopard. Our results have revealed complex interactions between apex and smaller predators and between apex predator and its potential prey.

Department of Agri Food Environmental and Animal Sciences University of Udine Via Sondrio 2 A 33100 Udine Italy

Department of Ecology and Evolution University of Lausanne Biophore Quartier Sorge Lausanne CH 1015 Switzerland

Department of Research and Conservation Wildlife Initiative Italia Via Rovigo 12 31040 Pederobba Italy

Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Biology Mongolian Academy of Sciences Ulaanbaatar Mongolia

Maremma Natural History Museum Grosseto and Department of Life Sciences University of Siena Siena Italy

School of Arts and Sciences National University of Mongolia Ulaanbaatar Mongolia

Wildlife Initiative Bayangol 6th Khoroo Micro District 10 Ulaanbaatar 210349 Mongolia

Wildlife Institute School of Ecology and Nature Conservation Beijing Forestry University Beijing China

World Biodiversity Association C o Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Lungadige Porta Vittoria 9 37129 Verona Italia

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