We equipped 17 captive red deer males (Cervus elaphus) with GPS collars to measure inter-individual distances throughout the 5-months of the antler growth period. We expected some individuals to associate regularly with others while others would not. We predicted that males aggregating with others within a socially stable environment (Associates) would benefit from a form of "social buffering" and would likely have lowered cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) concentrations. Males only irregularly joining social groupings would experience elevated levels of aggression; according to the "Challenge hypothesis", their T and C concentrations should increase. Interacting with a higher proportion of Associates did indeed reduce C concentrations. Conversely, avoiding Associates and challenging other males stimulated the T secretion. Admittedly, males avoiding regular proximity to others tended to develop the largest antlers. They probably benefited from frequent successful agonistic threats to conspecifics, resulting in elevated T concentrations. Regular association with tolerant, conspecifics and "social buffering" did not seem sufficient for producing larger antlers despite reducing C concentrations. Alternative social strategies were adopted within the same group of individuals and showed how the trade-off between these strategies could have an essential impact on C and T concentrations.

Department of Ethology Institute of Animal Science Přátelství 815 Praha Uhříneves 10400 Czech Republic

Department of Game Management and Wildlife Biology Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Kamýcká 129 16521 Praha 6 Czech Republic

Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Kamýcká 129 16521 Praha 6 Czech Republic

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