BACKGROUND: The use of medicinal plants is integral to global healthcare systems, with Sub-Saharan Africa maintaining a robust tradition of herbal medicine alongside Western-oriented healthcare. As migrant communities tend to continue traditional herbal practices after migration, documenting this use is vital to develop culturally sensitive healthcare. This study investigates plant usage and perspectives in the context of sexual and reproductive health among the Congolese community in Belgium, particularly in the Matongé quarter of Brussels. Our research questions were: (1) What is the current knowledge of medicinal plants among the Congolese community in Belgium in the context of sexual health, and what are the applications and commonly employed administration methods of these plants? (2) What role does herbal medicine play in the context of sexual health for people of Congolese descent in Belgium and how this is influenced by perceptions of sexuality? and (3) Is there a gender bias in the use of medicinal plants, and if so, can this be related to perceived gender norms? METHODS: We conducted 22 semi-structured interviews with people of Congolese descent currently living in Belgium. Participants were selected using both snowball sampling and purposive sampling. Plant use in the context of sexual health was recorded through freelisting. Data on narratives, ideas, and perceptions of this plant use in the context of sexual health were collected. Interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: We identified 17 plant species used for sexual health. Three overarching themes emerged from our data. Plants were used with a notable gender bias favoring male sexual potency enhancement. Men used these plants for both remedying potency issues and enhancing sexual prowess. In contrast, knowledge about plants for female sexual health was limited. Gender norms reinforced the importance of male sexual potency, while stigmatizing open discussions of female sexuality. CONCLUSIONS: The use of medicinal plants for sexual health raises health, social, and conservation concerns, underscoring the need for further research in this area. This study contributes to understanding medicinal plant use within the Congolese community in Belgium and highlights the necessity for future research on herbal practices for female sexual health in this context.

Brussels Belgium

Department of Biology Ghent University K L Ledeganckstraat 35 9000 Ghent Belgium

Department of Environmental Sciences Kinshasa University BP 127 Kinshasa XI Democratic Republic of the Congo

Department of Plants and Crops Ghent University Coupure Links 653 9000 Ghent Belgium

Department of Sociology Health and Demographic Research Ghent University Sint Pietersnieuwstraat 41 9000 Ghent Belgium

Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague 165 00 Prague Czech Republic

Lignaverda Belgium Duwijckstraat 17 2500 Lier Belgium

Natural Products and Food Research and Analysis Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Antwerp Universiteitsplein 1 2610 Antwerp Belgium

Spanish National Research Council Malaga Spain

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Šantić Z, Pravdić N, Bevanda M, Galić K. The historical use of medicinal plants in traditional and scientific medicine. Psychiatr Danub. 2017;29(4):787–792. PubMed

Stanifer JW, Kilonzo K, Wang D, Su G, Mao W, Zhang L, Zhang L, Nayak-Rao S, Miranda JJ. Traditional medicines and kidney disease in low- and middle-income countries: opportunities and challenges. Semin Nephrol. 2017;37:245–259. doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2017.02.005. PubMed DOI

Kibungu P, Nzuki Bakwaye F, Belesi Katula H, Vanhove W, Van Damme P. Ethnobotanical characterization of medicinal plants used in Kisantu and Mbanza-Ngungu territories, Kongo-Central Province in DR Congo. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2021 doi: 10.1186/s13002-020-00428-7. PubMed DOI PMC

Osamor PE, Owumi BE. Complementary and alternative medicine in the management of hypertension in an urban Nigerian community. BMC Complem Alter Med. 2010;10:1. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-10-36. PubMed DOI PMC

Van Andel T, Westers P. Why Surinamese migrants in the Netherlands continue to use medicinal herbs from their home country. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;127:694–701. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.11.033. PubMed DOI

Van Andel T, Carvalheiro LG. Why urban citizens in developing countries use traditional medicines: the case of suriname. Evid Complem Alter Med. 2013 doi: 10.1155/2013/687197. PubMed DOI PMC

Ekor M. The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety. Front Pharmacol. 2014;4:177. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2013.00177. PubMed DOI PMC

Ernst E, White A. The BBC survey of complementary medicine use in the UK. Complem Ther Med. 2000;8:32–36. doi: 10.1016/S0965-2299(00)90833-1. PubMed DOI

Tindle H, Davis R, Eisenberg D, Phillips R. Trends in use of complementary and alternative medicine by us adults: 1997–2002. Alter Therap Health Med. 2005;11(1):42–49. PubMed

Ahmad KMS, Ahmad I. Herbal medicine: current trends and future prospects. New Look Phytomed Adv Herbal Products Novel Drug Leads. 2019 doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814619-4.00001-X. DOI

Timoshyna A, Ke Z, Yang Y, Ling X. Controlling the invisible trade: wild plant resources and their sustainability. WCO News Magazine. 2020.

Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-berman A, O’Connor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. Medicinal plants used by latino healers for women’s health conditions in New York city 1. Econ Bot. 2000;54:344–357. doi: 10.1007/BF02864786. DOI

Medeiros PM, De Soldati GT, Alencar NL, Vandebroek I, Pieroni A, Hanazaki N, De Albuquerque UP. The use of medicinal plants by migrant people: adaptation, maintenance, and replacement. Evid Complem Alter Med. 2012 doi: 10.1155/2012/807452. PubMed DOI PMC

Ceuterick M, Vandebroek I. Identity in a medicine cabinet: Discursive positions of Andean migrants towards their use of herbal remedies in the United Kingdom. Soc Sci Med. 2017;177:43–51. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.01.026. PubMed DOI

Moullan Y, Jusot F. Why is the “healthy immigrant effect” different between European countries? Eur J Pub Health. 2014;24(suppl 1):80–86. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/cku112. PubMed DOI

Rosano A, Dauvrin M, Buttiġieġ SC, Ronda E, Tafforeau J, Dias S. Migrant’s access to preventive health services in five EU countries. BMC Health Serv Res. 2017 doi: 10.1186/s12913-017-2549-9. PubMed DOI PMC

Sasse A, Deblonde J, De Rouck M, Montourcy M, Van Beckhoven D. Epidemiologie van AIDS en HIV-Infectie in België. n.d. https://www.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/report_sida_2019_nl_final_february2020_1.pdf. Accessed 1 Feb 2024.

Schoonvaere Q. Studie over de Congolese migratie en de impact ervan op de Congolese aanwezigheid in België: Analyse van de voornaamste demografische gegevens. 2010.

Van Reybrouck D. Congo, een geschiedenis. De Bezige Bij, 2010.

Demart S. Congolese migration to Belgium and postcolonial perspectives. Afr Diaspora. 2013;6:1. doi: 10.1163/18725457-12341239. DOI

Beddington E. Out of Africa: Brussels’ vibrant Matonge quarter. The Guardian. 2013. https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2013/nov/03/brussels-matonge-quarter-belgium. Accessed 16 June 2023.

Demart S. Histoire orale à Matonge (Bruxelles): un miroir postcolonial. Revue Européenne Des Migrations Internationales, 2013;29. 10.4000/remi.6323

Gombeer S, Nebesse C, Musaba P, Ngoy S, Peeters M, Vanderheyden A, Meganck K, Smitz N, Geers F, Van Den Heuvel S, Backeljau T, De Meyer M, Verheyen E. Exploring the bushmeat market in Brussels, Belgium: a clandestine luxury business. Biodivers Conserv. 2021;30:55–66. doi: 10.1007/S10531-020-02074-7. DOI

Van Andel T, Fundiiko MCC. The trade in african medicinal plants in matonge-ixelles Brussels (Belgium) Econ Botany. 2016;70:405–415. doi: 10.1007/s12231-016-9365-8. PubMed DOI PMC

Vawazola NVH, Tshiendesha KC, Lumfwankenda MLS, Ntumba D, Kilemba N, Binga N, Masimango NJ-T. Inventaire des produits végétaux entrant dans la préparation des boissons Tangawisi. Congo Sciences. 2018. 6(3).

De Meyer E, Van Damme P, de la Peña E, Ceuterick M. ‘A disease like any other’ traditional, complementary and alternative medicine use and perspectives in the context of COVID-19 among the Congolese community in Belgium. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2022;18:29. doi: 10.1186/S13002-022-00530-Y. PubMed DOI PMC

Yaga Burundi. Plantes traditionnelles comme stimulant sexuel : prudence. 2013. https://www.yaga-burundi.com/urukundo/plantes-traditionnelles-comme-stimulant-sexuel-prudence/. Accessed 16 June 2023.

Seleteng Kose L, Moteetee A, Van Vuuren S. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the Maseru district of Lesotho. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;170:184–200. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.04.047. PubMed DOI

Towns AM, Quiroz D, Guinee L, De Boer H, Van Andel T. Volume, value and floristic diversity of Gabons medicinal plant markets. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:1184–1193. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.06.052. PubMed DOI

Chiribagula VB, Alonie-Gracia A, Mahungala AK, Amuri SB, Ndjolo PO. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in the treatment of sexual dysfunctions in traditional medicine in Kampemba-Lubumbashi, DR Congo. World J Adv Res Rev. 2020;7:16–32. doi: 10.30574/wjarr. DOI

Nzuki Bakwayé F, Termote C, Kibungu P, Van Damme P. Identification et importance locale des plantes médicinales utilisées dans la région de Mbanza-Ngungu, République démocratique du Congo. Bois et Forêts Des Tropiques. 2013;316.

M’Buy SH. Mode et mœurs : des kinois de plus en plus dépendants des aphrodisiaques. 2016. http://creationactive.blogspot.com/2016/12/mode-et-murs-des-kinois-de-plus-en-plus.html. Accessed 16 June 2023.

Ntumba M. Sexualité : la prise des aphrodisiaques s’enracine dans les habitudes des jeunes kinois. Lemag. 2023. https://www.lemag.cd/sante/2023/04/11/sexualite-la-prise-des-aphrodisiaques-senracine-dans-les-habitudes-des-jeunes. Accessed 16 June 2023.

RedactionSA. RDC : comment se porte le commerce des aphrodisiaques à Kinshasa ? Sahuti Africa. 2022. https://sahutiafrica.net/rdc-comment-le-commerce-des-aphrodisiaques-marche-a-kinshasa/. Accessed 16 June 2023.

Robins SG, Lee HC, Lim RSH, Fullerton J. Recruitment of hard-to-reach population subgroups via adaptations of the snowball sampling strategy. Nurs Health Sci. 2010;12:369–374. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-2018.2010.00541.x. PubMed DOI PMC

Dolores M, Tongco C. Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:147–158. doi: 10.17348/era.5.0.147-158. DOI

Saunders B, Sim J, Kingstone T, Baker S, Waterfield J, Bartlam B, Burroughs H, Jinks C. Saturation in qualitative research: exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Qual Quant. 2018 doi: 10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8. PubMed DOI PMC

Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3:77–101. doi: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa. DOI

PROTA4U. Plant Resources of the World (PROW). 2023. https://prota.prota4u.org/. Accessed 16 June 2023.

Plantentuin Meise. The Flora of Central Africa. 2023. https://www.floredafriquecentrale.be/#/en/home. Accessed 16 June 2023.

IPNI. International Plant Names Index. Published on the Internet http://www.ipni.org, The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria and Libraries and Australian National Herbarium. 2023. https://www.ipni.org/. Accessed 15 June 2023.

Bhat R, Karim AA. Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia Jack): a review on its ethnobotany and pharmacological importance. Fitoterapia. 2010;81:669–679. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2010.04.006. PubMed DOI

Darwin Holmes AG. Researcher positionality: a consideration of its influence and place in qualitative research—a new researcher guide. Shanlax Int J Edu. 2020;8:1–10. doi: 10.34293/education.v8i4.3232. DOI

Adamu H, Adamu AA, Cletus B, Marafa L, Abdulmalik M. Prevalence and pattern of aphrodisiac use among adult population in Sokoto Metropolis, Northwest Nigeria. Int J Res Rep Gynaecol. 2022;2022(5):3.

Manortey S, Mensah PA, Acheampong GK. Evaluating factors associated with the use of aphrodisiacs among adult male residents in Ashaiman municipality. Ghana OALib. 2018;5:1–13. doi: 10.4236/oalib.1104876. DOI

Ndombe DM, Manun’Ebo MF, Ilunga BM. Consommation Des Aphrodisiaques Chez Les adolescents Et Adultes À Kinshasa: Prévalence Et Facteurs Associés. Eur Sci J ESJ. 2022 doi: 10.19044/esj.2022.v18n21p245. DOI

Van Andel T, Mitchell S, Volpato G, Vandebroek I, Swier J, Ruysschaert S, Jiménez CAR, Raes N. In search of the perfect aphrodisiac: parallel use of bitter tonics in West Africa and the Caribbean. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143(3):840–850. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.008. PubMed DOI

Fiaveh DY. Masculinity, male sexual virility, and use of aphrodisiacs in Ghana. J Men’s Stud. 2020;28(2):165–182. doi: 10.1177/1060826519887510. DOI

Kibungu Kembelo AO. Quelques plantes médicinales du Bas-Congo et leurs usages. n.d. http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-hk-61-kibungu.pdf. Accessed 16 June 2023.

Mola AM, Idrissa AZ, Mwange RK, Mukeba FB, Cakupewa MF, Mangambu JDD, Balagizi IK. Ethnobotanical survey of plants used against erectile dysfunction in the commune of Ngaba in Kinshasa/DR Congo. World J Adv Res Rev. 2022;13:193–200. doi: 10.30574/wjarr.2022.13.3.0193. DOI

Ngbolua KN, Inkoto CL, Mongo NL, Ashande CM, Masens YB, Mpiana PT. Étude ethnobotanique et floristique de quelques plantes médicinales commercialisées à Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo. Revue Marocaine Des Sciences Agronomiques et Vétérinaires. 2019;7:118–128.

Ali-Risasi C, Verdonck K, Padalko E, Vanden Broeck D, Praet M. Prevalence and risk factors for cancer of the uterine cervix among women living in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo: a cross-sectional study. Infect Agents Cancer. 2015 doi: 10.1186/s13027-015-0015-z. PubMed DOI PMC

Kabena NO, Lukoki LF, Mpiana TP, Ngombe KN, Ruphin PF, Robijaona B, Koto-te-Nyiwa N. Phytochemical screening of some medicinal plants traditionally used by African Women in Kinshasa city (DR Congo) for their intimate hygiene and evaluation of the pH of derived recipes. J Mod Drug Discov Drug Deliv Res. 2014;1:1–7.

Kabena N, Ngombe K, Ngbolua K, Kikufi B, Lassa L, Mboloko E, Mpiana P, Lukoki L. Etudes ethnobotanique et écologique des plantes d’hygiène intime féminine utilisées à Kinshasa (République Démocratique du Congo) Int J Biol Chem Sci. 2015;8:2626. doi: 10.4314/ijbcs.v8i6.23. DOI

Huysamen M. “There’s massive pressure to please her”: on the discursive production of men’s desire to pay for sex. J Sex Res. 2020;57:639–649. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2019.1645806. PubMed DOI

Murray SH. Heterosexual men’s sexual desire: supported by, or deviating from, traditional masculinity norms and sexual scripts? Sex Roles. 2018;78:130–141. doi: 10.1007/s11199-017-0766-7. DOI

Farvid P, Braun V. “Most of us guys are raring to go anytime, anyplace, anywhere”: male and female sexuality in Cleo and Cosmo. In Sex Roles. 2006;55(5–6):295–310. doi: 10.1007/s11199-006-9084-1. DOI

Spronk R. The idea of African men: dealing with the cultural contradictions of sex in academia and in Kenya. Cult Health Sex. 2014;16:504–517. doi: 10.1080/13691058.2014.889755. PubMed DOI

Momath D. Les jeunes accros aux aphrodisiaques. Habari RDC. 2016. https://habarirdc.net/jeunes-accros-aux-aphrodisiaques/. Accessed 17 June 2023.

Wilkins AC. STIGMA AND STATUS: interracial intimacy and intersectional identities among black college men. Gend Soc. 2012;26(2):165–189. doi: 10.1177/0891243211434613. DOI

Gómez-Berrocal C, Moyano N, Álvarez-Muelas A, Sierra JC. Sexual double standard: a gender-based prejudice referring to sexual freedom and sexual shyness. Front Psychol. 2022 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1006675. PubMed DOI PMC

Cislaghi B, Bhatia A, Li M, Lian Q, Baird S, Kayembe P, Chipeta E, Moreau C. Changes in the sexual double standard associated with sociodevelopmental factors among young adolescents in Kinshasa. J Adolesc Health. 2021;69(1):S23–S30. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.07.041. PubMed DOI

Lusey H, San Sebastian M, Christianson M, Edin KE. Prevalence and correlates of gender inequitable norms among young, church-going women and men in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. BMC Public Health. 2018;18:1–12. doi: 10.1186/s12889-018-5742-9. PubMed DOI PMC

Slegh H, Barker G, Levtov R. Gender Relations, Sexual and Gender-Based Violence and the Effects of Conflict on Women and Men in North Kivu, Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey. Final Report. 2014. IMAGES. https://promundo.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Gender-Relations-Sexual-and-Gender-Based-Violence-and-the-Effects-of-Conflict-on-Women-and-Men-in-North-Kivu-Eastern-DRC-Results-from-IMAGES.pdf. Accessed 1 Dec 2023.

Lauro A. Women in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Oxford University Press. 2020. 10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.544

Mertens C, Myrttinen H. ‘A real woman waits’–heteronormative respectability, neo-liberal betterment and echoes of coloniality in SGBV programming in eastern DR Congo. J Interv Statebuild. 2019;13:418–439. doi: 10.1080/17502977.2019.1610992. DOI

Tamale S. Exploring the contours of African sexualities: religion, law and power. Afr Hum Rights Law J. 2014;14:150–177.

Fugh-Berman A. Herb-drug interactions. Lancet. 2000;355(9198):134–138. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)06457-0. PubMed DOI

Aremu AO, Cheesman L, Finnie JF, Van Staden J. Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae): a review of its biological activities, conservation strategies and economic potential. S Afr J Bot. 2011;77:960–971. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2011.06.010. DOI

Maňourová A, Chinheya IP, Kalousová M, Ruiz-Chután JA, Okafor UC, Tchoundjeu Z, Tsobeng A, Van Damme P, Lojka B. Domestication Potential of Garcinia kola Heckel (Clusiaceae): searching for diversity in South Cameroon. Plants. 2023;12:742. doi: 10.3390/plants12040742. PubMed DOI PMC

Van Andel T, Croft S, van Loon EE, Quiroz D, Towns AM, Raes N. Prioritizing West African medicinal plants for conservation and sustainable extraction studies based on market surveys and species distribution models. Biol Cons. 2015;181:173–181. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.015. DOI

Both R. A matter of sexual confidence: young men’s non-prescription use of Viagra in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Cult Health Sex. 2016;18(5):495–508. doi: 10.1080/13691058.2015.1101489. PubMed DOI

American Anthropological Association (AAA). Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association. 2012. http://ethics.americananthro.org/. Accessed 16 June 2023.

ISE/International Society of Ethnobiology. 2006. Code of Ethics. https://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/ Accessed 16 June 2023.

Tchicaillat-Landou M, Petit J, Gaiani C, Miabangana ES, Kimbonguila A, Nzikou JM, Scher J, Matos L. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by traditional healers for the treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases in the Congo Basin. J Herbal Med. 2018 doi: 10.1016/j.hermed.2018.05.002. DOI

Katemo M, Mpiana PT, Mbala BM, Mihigo SO, Ngbolua KN, Tshibangu DST, Koyange PR. Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used against diabetes in Kisangani city (DR Congo) J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;144:39–43. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.022. PubMed DOI

Termote C, van Damme P, Djailo BD. Eating from the wild: Turumbu Indigenous knowledge on noncultivated edible plants, Tshopo district, DR Congo. Ecol Food Nutr. 2010;49:173–207. doi: 10.1080/03670241003766030. PubMed DOI

Mbuta KK, Mwima K, Bitengeli M, Y’okolo I, Kavuna M, Mandanga M, Kalambayi M, Izamajole N, Kazembe K, Booto K, Vasaki N, Mwabonsika B, Lody D. Plantes médicinales de traditions : Province de l’Équateur - R.D. Congo. Institut de recherche en sciences de la santé. 2012. http://www.nzenzeflowerspauwels.be/bikonda-ku-mbuta.pdf. Accessed 16 June 2023.