In the present work, we addressed the relationship between parental leave policies and social norms. Using a pre-registered, cross-national approach, we examined the relationship between parental leave policies and the perception of social norms for the gender division of childcare. In this study, 19,259 students (11,924 women) from 48 countries indicated the degree to which they believe childcare is (descriptive norm) and should be (prescriptive norm) equally divided among mothers and fathers. Policies were primarily operationalized as the existence of parental leave options in the respective country. The descriptive and prescriptive norms of equal division of childcare were stronger when parental leave was available in a country - also when controlling for potential confounding variables. Moreover, analyses of time since policy change suggested that policy change may initially affect prescriptive norms and then descriptive norms at a later point. However, due to the cross-sectional nature of the data, drawing causal inferences is difficult.

AGH University of Krakow Poland

Aix Marseille Univ CNRS LPC France

American University of Beirut Lebanon

Australian Catholic University Melbourne Australia

Bahir Dar University Ethiopia

Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences Germany

Brock University Canada

Deusto Business School Bilbao Spain

Doha Institute for Graduate Studies Qatar

Dublin City University Ireland

Federal University of Applied Adminstrative Sciences Berlin Germany

FernUniversität in Hagen Germany

Hiroshima University Japan

IMD Business School Switzerland

Independent Researcher India

Indiana University Bloomington USA

Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences Lillehammer Norway

Instanbul Medipol University Turkey

Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar Croatia

International Islamic University Islamabad Pakistan

Islamic University of Gaza Palestine

İzmir Kâtip Çelebi University Turkey

Jagiellonian University Krakow Poland

Kaunas University of Technology Lithuania

Korea University South Korea

L N Gumilyov Eurasian National University Kazakhstan

La Trobe University Australia

Leuphana University Lüneburg Germany

Lithuanian University of Health Sciences Palanga Lithuania

Lund University Sweden

M Narikbayev KAZGUU University Astana Kazakhstan

Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts Skopje North Macedonia

Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Maynooth University Ireland

Nagoya University Japan

Nanyang Technological University Singapore

National Research University Higher School of Economics Moscow Russia

Ohio University USA

Osnabrück University Germany

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Chile

Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador Ecuador

Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Colombia

Purdue University West Lafayette USA

Research Foundation of Flanders Belgium

Rochester Institute of Technology in Kosovo Kosovo

Roma Tre University Italy

RPTU Kaiserslautern Landau Landau Germany

Saint Augustine University of Tanzania Tanzania

San Diego State University USA

Seoul National University South Korea

Shenzhen University China

Singidunum University Serbia

Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava Slovakia

State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatuillah Jakarta Indonesia

Stellenbosch University South Africa Stellenbosch Palestine

Stockholm University Sweden

Sunway University Malaysia

Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv Ukraine

The University of British Columbia Canada

The University of Sydney Australia

Thomas More College of Applied Psychology Antwerp Belgium

UAM Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Mexico

UiT The Arctic University of Norway Norway

UNAM Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico

Universidad de Granada Spain

Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de la Sierra Bolivia

Universidad San Sebastián Concepción Chile

Università di Perugia Italy

Université Clermont Auvergne France

University 'G D'Annunzio' of Chieti Pescara Italy

University of Amsterdam The Netherlands

University of Arizona USA

University of Belgrade Serbia

University of Bern Switzerland

University of Copenhagen Denmark

University of Costa Rica Costa Rica

University of Exeter UK

University of Gdańsk Poland

University of Geneva Switzerland

University of Gothenburg Sweden

University of Groningen The Netherlands

University of Kansas USA

University of Leipzig Germany

University of Leuven Belgium

University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA

University of Prishtina Kosovo

University of South Florida USA

University of Sussex UK

University of Tartu Estonia

University of Tirana Albania

University of Toronto Canada

University of Vienna Austria

University of Washington USA

University of Waterloo Canada

University of Zurich Switzerland

Utrecht University The Netherlands

Victoria University of Wellington New Zealand

West University of Timisoara Romania

Yale University USA

York University Canada

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749‐5978(91)90020‐T

Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta‐analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471–499. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466601164939

Bicchieri, C., & Mercier, H. (2014). Norms and beliefs: How change occurs. In M. Xenitidou & B. Emonds (Eds.), The complexity of social norms (pp. 37–54). Springer.

Bishin, B. G., Hayes, T. J., Incantalupo, M. B., & Smith, C. A. (2016). Opinion backlash and public attitudes: Are political advances in gay rights counterproductive? American Journal of Political Science, 60(3), 625–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12181

Boeckmann, I., Misra, J., & Budig, M. J. (2014). Cultural and institutional factors shaping mothers' employment and working hours in postindustrial countries. Social Forces, 93(4), 1301–1333. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou119

Bosson, J. K., Wilkerson, M., Kosakowska‐Berezecka, N., Jurek, P., & Olech, M. (2022). Harder won and easier lost? Testing the double standard in gender rules in 62 countries. Sex Roles, 87, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐022‐01297‐y

Burgess, D. J., & Borgida, E. (1999). Who women are, who women should be: Descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping in sex discrimination descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 5(3), 665–692. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076‐8971.5.3.665

Carlson, D. L., Hanson, S., & Fitzroy, A. (2016). The division of child care, sexual intimacy, and relationship quality in couples. Gender & Society, 30(3), 442–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243215626709

Chung, A., & Rimal, R. N. (2016). Social norms: A review. Review of Communication Research, 4, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.12840/issn.2255‐4165.2016.04.01.008

Cialdini, R. B., Kallgren, C. A., & Reno, R. R. (1991). A focus theory of normative conduct: A theoretical refinement and reevaluation of the role of norms in human behavior. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 201–234). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065‐2601(08)60330‐5

Cialdini, R. B., & Trost, M. R. (1998). Social influence: Social norms, conformity, and compliance. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 151–192). McGraw‐Hill.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.

Croft, A., Schmader, T., & Block, K. (2015). An underexamined inequality: Cultural and psychological barriers to men's engagement with communal roles. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(4), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314564789

Croft, A., Schmader, T., & Block, K. (2019). Life in the balance: Are women's possible selves constrained by men's domestic involvement? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(5), 808–823. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218797294

de Visser, R. O., & McDonnell, E. J. (2013). “Man points”: Masculine capital and young men’s health. Health Psychology, 32(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029045

Dotti Sani, G. M. (2020). Is it “good” to have a stay‐at‐home mom? Parental childcare time and work–family arrangements in Italy, 1988–2014. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society, 28(4), 896–920.

Dotti Sani, G. M., & Treas, J. (2016). Educational gradients in parents' child‐care time across countries, 1965–2012. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(4), 1083–1096.

Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 458–476). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49

Eisner, L., Turner‐Zwinkels, F., & Spini, D. (2021). The impact of laws on norms perceptions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(7), 1071–1083. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220959176

Enders, C. K., & Tofighi, D. (2007). Centering predictor variables in cross‐sectional multilevel models: A new look at an old issue. Psychological Methods, 12(2), 121–138. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082‐989X.12.2.121

Eriksson, K., Strimling, P., & Coultas, J. C. (2015). Bidirectional associations between descriptive and injunctive norms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.09.011

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Addison‐Wesley.

Flores, A. R., & Barclay, S. (2016). Backlash, consensus, legitimacy, or polarization: The effect of same‐sex marriage policy on mass attitudes. Political Research Quarterly, 69(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912915621175

Galbiati, R., Henry, E., Jacquemet, N., & Lobeck, M. (2021). How laws affect the perception of norms: Empirical evidence from the lockdown. PLoS One, 16(9), e0256624. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256624

Gaunt, R. (2006). Biological essentialism, gender ideologies, and role attitudes: What determines parents’ involvement in child care. Sex Roles, 55(7–8), 523–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐006‐9105‐0

Goldstein, N. J., & Cialdini, R. B. (2007). The spyglass self: A model of vicarious self‐perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 402–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022‐3514.92.3.402

Haas, L., & Hwang, C. P. (2019). Workplace support and European fathers' use of state policies promoting shared childcare. Community, Work & Family, 22(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2018.1556204

Hamilton, W. L., Biener, L., & Brennan, R. T. (2008). Do local tobacco regulations influence perceived smoking norms? Evidence from adult and youth surveys in Massachusetts. Health Education Research, 23, 709–722. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cym054

Hogg, M. A. (2010). Influence and leadership. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, 5th ed., pp. 1166–1206). Wiley.

Hogg, M. A., & Reid, S. A. (2006). Social identity, self‐categorization, and the communication of group norms. Communication Theory, 16(1), 7–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468‐2885.2006.00003.x

Horne, C., & Mollborn, S. (2020). Norms: An integrated framework. Annual Review of Sociology, 46, 467–487. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev‐soc‐121919‐054658

Jurado‐Guerrero, T., & Muñoz‐Comet, J. (2021). Design matters most: Changing social gaps in the use of fathers' leave in Spain. Population Research and Policy Review, 40, 589–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113‐020‐09592‐w

Kinzig, A. P., Ehrlich, P. R., Alston, L. J., Arrow, K., Barrett, S., Buchman, T. G., Daily, G. C., Levin, B., Levin, S., Oppenheimer, M., Ostrom, E., & Saari, D. (2013). Social norms and global environmental challenges: The complex interaction of behaviors, values, and policy. Bioscience, 63(3), 164–175.

Korotayev, A., Bilyuga, S., & Shishkina, A. (2018). GDP per capita and protest activity: A quantitative reanalysis. Cross‐Cultural Research, 52(4), 406–440. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397117732328

Laurin, K. (2018). Inaugurating rationalization: Three field studies find increased rationalization when anticipated realities become current. Psychological Science, 29(4), 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617738814

Legros, S., & Cislaghi, B. (2020). Mapping the social‐norms literature: An overview of reviews. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(1), 62–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619866455

Luís, S., & Palma‐Oliveira, J. (2016). Public policy and social norms: The case of a nationwide smoking ban among college students. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 22(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000064

Mahmoud, M. A., Ahmad, M. S., Yusoff, M. Z. M., & Mustapha, A. (2014). A review of norms and normative multiagent systems. The Scientific World Journal, 2014, 684587. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/684587

McAdams, R. H. (2000). An attitudinal theory of expressive law. Oregon Law Review, 79, 339–390.

Meeussen, L., Van Laar, C., & Van Grootel, S. (2020). How to foster male engagement in traditionally female communal roles and occupations: Insights from research on gender norms and precarious manhood. Social Issues and Policy Review, 14(1), 297–328. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12060

Meeussen, L., Van Laar, C., & Verbruggen, M. (2019). Looking for a family man? Norms for men are toppling in heterosexual relationships. Sex Roles, 80(7), 429–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐018‐0946‐0

Meeussen, L., Veldman, J., & Van Laar, C. (2016). Combining gender, work, and family identities: The cross‐over and spill‐over of gender norms into young adults’ work and family aspirations. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01781

Morris, M. W., Hong, Y.‐y., Chiu, C.‐y., & Liu, Z. (2015). Normology: Integrating insights about social norms to understand cultural dynamics. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.03.001

Nyborg, K. (2003). The impact of public policy on social and moral norms: Some examples. Journal of Consumer Policy, 26(3), 259–277. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025622223207

Olsson, M., van Grootel, S., Block, K., Schuster, C., Meussen, L., Schmader, T., Croft, A., Sun, M. S., Ainsaar, M., Aarntzen, L., Adamus, M., Anderson, J., Atkinson, C., Avicenna, M., Bąbel, P., Barth, M., Benson‐Greenwald, T. M., Maloku, E., Berent, J., … Martiny, S. E. (2023). Gender gap in parental leave intentions: Evidence from 37 countries. Political Psychology, 44, 1163–1192. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12880

Omidakhsh, N., Sprague, A., & Heymann, J. (2020). Dismantling restrictive gender norms: Can better designed paternal leave policies help? Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 20(1), 382–396.

Orbell, S., Lidierth, P., Henderson, C. J., Geeraert, N., Uller, C., Uskul, A. K., & Kyriakaki, M. (2009). Social–cognitive beliefs, alcohol, and tobacco use: A prospective community study of change following a ban on smoking in public places. Health Psychology, 28(6), 753–761. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016943

Pailhé, A., Solaz, A., & Stanfors, M. (2021). The great convergence: Gender and unpaid work in Europe and the United States. Population and Development Review, 47(1), 181–217.

Posner, E. (2000). Law and social norms. Harvard University Press.

Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E. (2002). What women and men should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471‐6402.t01‐1‐00066

Rivis, A., & Sheeran, P. (2003). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta‐analysis. Current Psychology, 22(3), 218–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144‐003‐1018‐2

Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004). Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022‐3514.87.2.157

Schwartz, S. H. (2008). The 7 Schwartz cultural value orientation scores for 80 countries. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3313.3040

Schwartz, S. H. (2014). Rethinking the concept and measurement of societal culture in light of empirical findings. Journal of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 45(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113490830

Steinbach, A., & Schulz, F. (2022). Stability and change in German parents' childcare patterns across two decades. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society, 29(2), 428–445.

Sunstein, C. R. (1996). On the expressive function of law. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 144(5), 2021–2053.

Syropoulos, S., Sparkman, G., & Constantino, S. M. (2024). The expressive function of public policy: Renewable energy mandates signal social norms. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 379, 20230038. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2023.0038

Tankard, M. E., & Paluck, E. L. (2016). Norm perception as a vehicle for social change. Social Issues and Policy Review, 10(1), 181–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12022

Tankard, M. E., & Paluck, E. L. (2017). The effect of a supreme court decision regarding gay marriage on social norms and personal attitudes. Psychological Science, 28(9), 1334–1344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617709594

Tharp, D. T., & Parks‐Stamm, E. J. (2021). Gender differences in the intended use of parental leave: Implications for human capital development. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 42, 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834‐020‐09722‐8

Unterhofer, U., & Wrohlich, K. (2017). Fathers, parental leave and gender norms (IZA Discussion Papers). https://papers.ssrn.com/Sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2952289

Van Kleef, G. A., Gelfand, M. J., & Jetten, J. (2019). The dynamic nature of social norms: New perspectives on norm development, impact, violation, and enforcement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 84, 103814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2019.05.002

Wei, L. (2020). Trends in parental time allocated to child care: Evidence from Canada, 1986–2010. Canadian Public Policy, 46(2), 236–252.