Grasslands, which account for over 40 % of the Earth's terrestrial area, play a vital role in mitigating global change and biodiversity loss. These ecosystems serve as critical carbon sinks, regulating the global carbon cycle and supporting diverse flora and fauna. However, their ability to sustain these functions is threatened by land use change and climate disruption. Current challenges revolve around understanding how key management practices such as grazing, mowing, burning, and fertilization, interact with environmental factors to influence grassland soil carbon stocks. This study presents a meta-analysis of the effects of these management practices and environmental factors, such as soil type, depth, texture, temperature, precipitation, and their synergistic interplay. It evaluates how management intensity, duration, and frequency interact with these environmental variables to influence soil carbon storage, providing valuable insights into optimizing grassland management for enhanced soil carbon stock and broader ecosystem stability. The findings reveal that grazing, particularly at high intensity, tends to reduce soil carbon stocks (-0.412, p < 0.001), with the most pronounced effects observed in shallow soils and temperate climates. Mowing also negatively affected carbon stock (-0.416, p = 0.013), especially when carried out frequently and over long durations. On the other hand, burning had mixed results with an overall positive effect (0.340, p = 0.078). Short-term burns promoted carbon accumulation, while frequent burning led to carbon loss. Fertilization, especially with nitrogen and phosphorus, proved beneficial for increasing soil carbon stocks (0.712, p < 0.001), particularly in nutrient-poor soils and semi-arid climates. This study introduces a systems-based approach to grassland management, providing a framework for optimizing carbon-focused strategies. By integrating the role of management practices, particularly their frequency, intensity, and duration, along with soil characteristics and climate, these findings provide actionable insights for policymakers, land managers, and researchers. They guide the development of sustainable management strategies that not only enhance soil carbon stocks but also support ecosystem health and resilience.

Institute of Hydrobiology Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences Na Sádkách 7 37005 České Budějovice Czech Republic

Institute of Soil Biology and Biogeochemistry Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences Na Sádkách 7 37005 České Budějovice Czech Republic; Institute of Environmental Studies Faculty of Sciences Charles University Prague Benátská 2 128 01 Prague Czech Republic

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