INTRODUCTION: Equine locomotion emerges from a dynamic interplay between morphology, biomechanics, and functional demands. This study examines the relationship between morphological measurements and gait kinematics in Lipizzan horses, a breed renowned for its diverse work tasks and standardized environmental conditions. These horses offer a unique opportunity to explore task-specific adaptations in biomechanics, with significant implications for breeding strategies and welfare practices. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study involved 71 healthy Lipizzan horses that were housed at the Lipica stud farm and performed various work tasks. Morphological measurements were taken with the help of a sartorial meter and an equine measuring stick to determine head and body measurements. Both the left and right sides of the body were measured to ensure consistency. Kinematic data, including regularity, symmetry, cadence, dorsoventral power, propulsion power, stride length and speed, were recorded using the Equimetrix accelerometer at a sampling rate of 100 Hz. The data was collected during several walks and trots where the horses were led over a 50-meter track. RESULTS: Task-based analysis revealed strong links between morphology and gait in four working groups, with distal limb measurements, especially hoof and pastern lengths, most consistently associated with stride and rhythm parameters. No significant associations were found at the whole-cohort level. Several morphological measurements showed contrasting effects across working groups, and half of the bilaterally measured traits revealed side-specific correlations. The clearest patterns emerged in horses used for general training and riding school. In horses in general training, strong associations were found between distal limb measurements and stride length or cadence, particularly during walk. In riding school horses, broader body measurements were linked to kinematic parameters including propulsion power, dorsoventral power, and symmetry. DISCUSSION: This study highlights the dynamic interplay between conformation and functional demands in clinically sound horses. Rather than exerting fixed effects, morphological measurements interacted with work type to shape gait expression, even in the absence of pathology. These findings underscore the need to consider both structure and task when evaluating locomotion. Integrating morphometric assessment into training and selection strategies may support performance, soundness, and welfare in healthy working horses.

Department of Animal Science Biotechnical Faculty University of Ljubljana Domžale Slovenia

Department of Ethology and Companion Animal Science Faculty of Agrobiology Food and Natural Resources Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Prague Czechia

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Biewener A, Patek S. Animal locomotion. Oxford: Oxford University Press; (2008).

Barrey E. Methods, applications and limitations of gait analysis in horses. Vet J. (1999) 157:7–22. doi: 10.1053/tvjl.1998.0297, PMID: PubMed DOI

Hildebrand M. Symmetrical gaits of horses: gaits can be expressed numerically and analyzed graphically to reveal their nature and relationships. Science. (1965) 150:701–8. doi: 10.1126/science.150.3697.701 PubMed DOI

Jayes AS, Alexander RMN. Mechanics of locomotion of dogs ( PubMed DOI

Gasc J-P. Comparative aspects of gait, scaling and mechanics in mammals. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol. (2001) 131:121–33. doi: 10.1016/S1095-6433(01)00457-3, PMID: PubMed DOI

Garland T, Janis CM. Does metatarsal/femur ratio predict maximal running speed in cursorial mammals? J Zool. (1993) 229:133–51. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1993.tb02626.x DOI

Wall-Scheffler CM. Size and shape: morphology’s impact on human speed and mobility. J Anthropol. (2012) 2012:1–9. doi: 10.1155/2012/340493 DOI

Christiansen P. Locomotion in terrestrial mammals: the influence of body mass, limb length and bone proportions on speed. Zool J Linnean Soc. (2002) 136:685–714. doi: 10.1046/j.1096-3642.2002.00041.x DOI

Fabre A, Cornette R, Goswami A, Peigné S. Do constraints associated with the locomotor habitat drive the evolution of forelimb shape? A case study in musteloid carnivorans. J Anat. (2015) 226:596–610. doi: 10.1111/joa.12315, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Back W, Clayton HM, Rossdale PD. Equine locomotion. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Saunders Elsevier; (2013).

Koenen EPC, Aldridge LI, Philipsson J. An overview of breeding objectives for warmblood sport horses. Livest Prod Sci. (2004) 88:77–84. doi: 10.1016/j.livprodsci.2003.10.011 DOI

Galisteo AM, Morales J, Cano MR, Miró F, Agüera E, Vivo J. Inter-breed differences in equine forelimb kinematics at the walk. J Veterinary Med Ser A. (2001) 48:277–85. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0442.2001.00344.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

Holmström M, Fredricson I, Drevemo S. Biokinematic analysis of the Swedish warmblood riding horse at trot. Equine Vet J. (1994) 26:235–40. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1994.tb04376.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

Ricard A, Dumont Saint Priest B, Danvy S, Barrey E. Accelerometers provide early genetic selection criteria for jumping horses. Front Genet. (2020) 11:448. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2020.00448, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Leleu C, Cotrel C, Barrey E. Relationships between biomechanical variables and race performance in French Standardbred trotters. Livest Prod Sci. (2005) 92:39–46. doi: 10.1016/j.livprodsci.2004.07.019 PubMed DOI

Hardeman AM, Egenvall A, Serra Bragança FM, Swagemakers J, Koene MHW, Roepstorff L, et al. Visual lameness assessment in comparison to quantitative gait analysis data in horses. Equine Vet J. (2022) 54:1076–85. doi: 10.1111/evj.13545 PubMed DOI PMC

Bosch S, Serra Bragança F, Marin-Perianu M, Marin-Perianu R, Van Der Zwaag B, Voskamp J, et al. EquiMoves: a wireless networked inertial measurement system for objective examination of horse gait. Sensors. (2018) 18:850. doi: 10.3390/s18030850, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Biau S, Burgaud I. Application of kinesiology taping to equine abdominal musculature in a tension frame for muscle facilitation increases longitudinal activity at the trot. Equine Vet J. (2022) 54:973–8. doi: 10.1111/evj.13533, PMID: PubMed DOI

Leleu C, Bariller F, Cotrel C, Barrey E. Reproducibility of a locomotor test for trotter horses. Vet J. (2004) 168:160–6. doi: 10.1016/S1090-0233(03)00109-6 PubMed DOI

Argüelles D, Saitua A, De Medina AS, Muñoz JA, Muñoz A. Clinical efficacy of clodronic acid in horses diagnosed with navicular syndrome: a field study using objective and subjective lameness evaluation. Res Vet Sci. (2019) 125:298–304. doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2019.07.018, PMID: PubMed DOI

Moorman VJ, Reiser RF, Peterson ML, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE. Effect of forelimb lameness on hoof kinematics of horses at a walk. Am J Vet Res. (2013) 74:1192–7. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.74.9.1192, PMID: PubMed DOI

Peham C, Licka T, Girtler D, Scheidl M. Supporting forelimb lameness: clinical judgement vs. computerised symmetry measurement. Equine Vet J. (1999) 31:417–21. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03842.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

Weishaupt MA, Wiestner T, Hogg HP, Jordan P, Auer JA, Barrey E. Assessment of gait irregularities in the horse: eye vs. gait analysis. Equine Vet J. (2001) 33:135–40. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2001.tb05376.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

Wennerstrand J, Johnston C, Roethlisberger-Holm K, Erichsen C, Eksell P, Drevemo S. Kinematic evaluation of the back in the sport horse with back pain. Equine Vet J. (2004) 36:707–11. doi: 10.2746/0425164044848226, PMID: PubMed DOI

Dovc P, Kavar T, Sölkner H, Achmann R. Development of the Lipizzan horse breed. Reprod Domest Anim. (2006) 41:280–5. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0531.2006.00726.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

Lovšin E, Fazarinc G, Pogačnik A, Bavdek SV. Growth dynamics of Lipizzan horses and their comparison to other horse breeds. Pflugers Arch Eur J Physiol. (2001) 442:r211–2. doi: 10.1007/s004240100029, PMID: PubMed DOI

Rault J-L, Hintze S, Camerlink I, Yee JR. Positive welfare and the like: distinct views and a proposed framework. Front Vet Sci. (2020) 7:370. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00370, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Turner PV. Moving beyond the absence of pain and distress: focusing on positive animal welfare. ILAR J. (2019) 60:366–72. doi: 10.1093/ilar/ilaa017, PMID: PubMed DOI

Webber S, Cobb ML, Coe J. Welfare through competence: a framework for animal-centric technology design. Front Vet Sci. (2022) 9:885973. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.885973, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Campbell DLM, Ingham AB, Lee C. Review: environmental enrichment builds functional capacity and improves resilience as an aspect of positive welfare in production animals. Animal. (2024) 18:101173. doi: 10.1016/j.animal.2024.101173, PMID: PubMed DOI

Zechner P, Zohman F, Sölkner J, Bodo I, Habe F, Marti E, et al. Morphological description of the Lipizzan horse population. Livest Prod Sci. (2001) 69:163–77. doi: 10.1016/S0301-6226(00)00254-2 DOI

Debeljak N, Košmerlj A, Altimiras J, Zupan Šemrov M. Relationship between anatomical characteristics and personality traits in Lipizzan horses. Sci Rep. (2022) 12:12618. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-16627-z, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Carroll CL, Huntington PJ. Body condition scoring and weight estimation of horses. Equine Vet J. (1988) 20:41–5. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1988.tb01451.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

López-Sanromán FJ, Holmbak-Petersen R, Santiago I, Gómez De Segura IA, Barrey E. Gait analysis using 3D accelerometry in horses sedated with xylazine. Vet J. (2012) 193:212–6. doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.10.012, PMID: PubMed DOI

Vicente AA, Carolino N, Ralão-Duarte J, Gama LT. Selection for morphology, gaits and functional traits in Lusitano horses: I. Genetic parameter estimates. Livest Sci. (2014) 164:1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2014.01.020 DOI

Weishaupt MA, Waldern NM, Amport C, Ramseier LC, Wiestner T. Effects of shoeing on intra- and inter-limb coordination and movement consistency in Icelandic horses at walk, tölt and trot. Vet J. (2013) 198:e109–13. doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.043, PMID: PubMed DOI

Steudel K. The work and energetic cost of locomotion 1. The effects of limb mass distribution in quadrupeds. J Exp Biol. (1990) 154:273–83. doi: 10.1242/jeb.154.1.273 PubMed DOI

Ross MW. Conformation and lameness In: Ross NW, Dyson S, editors. Diagnosis and management of lameness in the horse. Philadelphia, PA: Williams & Wilkins; (2003). 15–31.

Byström A, Egenvall A, Eisersiö M, Engell MT, Lykken S, Lundesjö Kvart S. The impact of teaching approach on horse and rider biomechanics during riding lessons. Heliyon. (2025) 11:e41947. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e41947, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Deuel NR, Park J. The gait patterns of Olympic dressage horses. Int. J. Sport Biomech. (1990) 6:198–226. doi: 10.1123/ijsb.6.2.198 DOI

Clayton HM. Comparison of the stride kinematics of the collected, medium, and extended walks in horses. Am J Vet Res. (1995) 56:849–52. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.1995.56.07.849, PMID: PubMed DOI

Tijssen M, Hernlund E, Rhodin M, Bosch S, Voskamp JP, Nielen M, et al. Automatic detection of break-over phase onset in horses using hoof-mounted inertial measurement unit sensors. PLoS One. (2020) 15:e0233649. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233649, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Clayton HM, Hobbs SJ. An exploration of strategies used by dressage horses to control moments around the center of mass when performing passage. PeerJ. (2017) 5:e3866. doi: 10.7717/peerj.3866, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

De Cocq P, Mooren M, Dortmans A, Van Weeren PR, Timmerman M, Muller M, et al. Saddle and leg forces during lateral movements in dressage. Equine Vet J. (2010) 42:644–9. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00201.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

Popescu S, Diugan EA, Spinu M. The interrelations of good welfare indicators assessed in working horses and their relationships with the type of work. Res Vet Sci. (2014) 96:406–14. doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.12.014, PMID: PubMed DOI

Danışan S, Yaranoğlu B, Özen H. The relationship of personality traits with breed, sex, and racing performance in sport horses. J Vet Behav. (2024) 71:18–26. doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2023.12.005 DOI

Aune A, Fenner K, Wilson B, Cameron E, McLean A, McGreevy P. Reported behavioural differences between geldings and mares challenge sex-driven stereotypes in ridden equine behaviour. Animals. (2020) 10:405. doi: 10.3390/ani100304057 PubMed DOI PMC

Fenner K, Caspar G, Hyde M, Henshall C, Dhand N, Probyn-Rapsey F, et al. It’s all about the sex, or is it? Humans, horses and temperament. PLoS One. (2019) 14:e0216699. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216699, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Duberstein KJ, Gilkeson JA. Determination of sex differences in personality and trainability of yearling horses utilizing a handler questionnaire. Appl Anim Behav Sci. (2010) 128:57–63. doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.09.012, PMID: DOI

Huizinga HA, van der Werf JHJ, Korver S, van der Meij GJW. Stationary performance testing of stallions from the Dutch warmblood riding horse population. I. Estimated genetic parameters of scored traits and the genetic relation with dressage and jumping competition from offspring of breeding stallions. Livest Prod Sci. (1991) 27:231–44. doi: 10.1016/0301-6226(91)90099-C DOI

Clayton HM, Hobbs S-J. The role of biomechanical analysis of horse and rider in equitation science. Appl Anim Behav Sci. (2017) 190:123–32. doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.011 DOI

Rault J-L, Bateson M, Boissy A, Forkman B, Grinde B, Gygax L, et al. A consensus on the definition of positive animal welfare. Biol Lett. (2025) 21:20240382. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2024.0382, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC