Research suggests that adverse rearing conditions such as poor-quality relations with one's parents are associated with a range of potentially problematic sexual behaviors and interests. Less is known, however, about the mechanisms linking adverse rearing conditions and paraphilic interest, especially in non-incarcerated individuals. In a representative sample of 1600 Czech adults that oversampled people with paraphilic interests, the current study examined the association between lower quality parental relations and violent paraphilic interest (sexual interest in immobilization, biastophilia, and sadomasochism), and whether this association was mediated by attachment insecurity. Participants completed an online survey with questions assessing violent paraphilic interest, attachment style, and quality of relations with their parents up until age 12. A series of models were fitted to hypotheses based on structural equation modeling. The model estimating a mediation effect of relationship quality with parents on paraphilic interests via attachment insecurity showed an adequate fit to the data (RMSEA = .039, SRMR = .027, CFI = .977, TLI = .953). Controlling for age and gender, lower parental relationship quality was associated with higher levels of violent paraphilic interest and this effect was mediated by insecure attachment, specifically preoccupied and fearful-avoidant attachment styles. Our findings indicate that insecure attachment styles, particularly those that involve anxiety of rejection, may be part of the mechanism linking poor parental bonds and violent paraphilic interest, but the causal nature of these effects cannot be confirmed based on cross-sectional observational data. We discuss study limitations and new research directions in the discussion section.

Centrum pro sexuální zdraví a intervence National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic

Faculty of Humanities Charles University Pátkova 2137 5 Prague 182 00 Czech Republic

Faculty of Psychology Universitetet i Bergen Bergen Norway

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Abrams, M., Chronos, A., & Milisavljevic Grdinic, M. (2022). Childhood abuse and sadomasochism: New insights. Sexologies, 31(3), 240–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2021.10.004 DOI

Aebi, M., Landolt, M. A., Mueller-Pfeiffer, C., Schnyder, U., Maier, T., & Mohler-Kuo, M. (2015). Testing the “sexually abused-abuser hypothesis” in adolescents: A population-based study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(8), 2189–2199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0440-x PubMed DOI

Baldwin, J. R., Reuben, A., Newbury, J. B., & Danese, A. (2019). Agreement between prospective and retrospective measures of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(6), 584–593. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0097

Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 PubMed DOI

Bártová, K., Androvičová, R., Krejčová, L., Weiss, P., & Klapilová, K. (2021). The prevalence 4of paraphilic interests in the Czech population: Preference, arousal, the use of pornography, fantasy, and behavior. Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1707468 PubMed DOI

Bayraktaroglu, D., Gunaydin, G., Selcuk, E., Besken, M., & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, Z. (2023). The role of positive relationship events in romantic attachment avoidance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 124(5), 958–970. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000406 PubMed DOI

Belsky, J. (2012). The development of human reproductive strategies: Progress and prospects. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(5), 310–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412453588 DOI

Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238 PubMed DOI

Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588–606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588 DOI

Bentler, P. M., & Chou, C.-P. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods & Research, 16(1), 78–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124187016001004 DOI

Bernardon, S., Babb, K. A., Hakim-Larson, J., & Gragg, M. (2011). Loneliness, attachment, and the perception and use of social support in university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences Du Comportement, 43(1), 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021199 DOI

Bernstein, D. P., Stein, J. A., Newcomb, M. D., Walker, E., Pogge, D., Ahluvalia, T., Stokes, J., Handelsman, L., Medrano, M., Desmond, D., & Zule, W. (2003). Development and validation of a brief screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(2), 169–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00541-0 DOI

Birnbaum, G. E. (2007). Attachment orientations, sexual functioning, and relationship satisfaction in a community sample of women. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407507072576 DOI

Boer, D. P., Hart, S. D., Kropp, P. R., & Webster, C. D. (2017). Manual for version 2 of the Sexual Violence Risk—20: Structured professional judgment guidelines for assessing and managing risk of sexual violence. Protect International Risk and Safety Services Inc.

Bollen, K. A. (1989). Confirmatory factor analysis. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118619179 DOI

Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment (2nd ed.). Basic Books.

Brodie, Z. P., Goodall, K., Darling, S., & McVittie, C. (2019). Attachment insecurity and dispositional aggression: The mediating role of maladaptive anger regulation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(6), 1831–1852. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407518772937 DOI

Brouillette-Alarie, S., & Proulx, J. (2019). The etiology of risk in sexual offenders: A preliminary model. Sexual Abuse, 31(4), 431–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063218759325 PubMed DOI

Brown, A., Barker, E. D., & Rahman, Q. (2020). A systematic scoping review of the prevalence, etiological, psychological, and interpersonal factors associated with BDSM. Journal of Sex Research, 57(6), 781–811. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1665619 PubMed DOI

Chan, H. C. (2023). Youth sexual offending in Hong Kong: Examining the role of self-control, risky sexual behaviors, and paraphilic interests. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1143271. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1143271 PubMed DOI PMC

Chopik, W. J., Edelstein, R. S., & Fraley, R. C. (2013). From the cradle to the grave: Age differences in attachment from early adulthood to old age. Journal of Personality, 81(2), 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00793.x PubMed DOI

Connolly, M., & Woollons, R. (2008). Childhood sexual experience and adult offending: An exploratory comparison of three criminal groups. Child Abuse Review, 17(2), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.1019 DOI

Czech Statistical Office. (2013). Statistical yearbook of the Czech Republic 2013. https://csu.gov.cz/produkty/statistical-yearbook-of-the-czech-republic-2013-653m9thdn1

Danese, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiology & Behavior, 106(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.019 DOI

Dang, S. S., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2015). Insecure attachment style and dysfunctional sexual beliefs predict sexual coercion proclivity in university men. Sexual Medicine, 3(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/sm2.60 PubMed DOI PMC

Del Giudice, M. (2019). Sex differences in attachment styles. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.004 PubMed DOI

Dhawan, S., & Marshall, W. L. (1996). Sexual abuse histories of sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse, 8(1), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906329600800102 DOI

Dunkley, C. R., & Brotto, L. A. (2020). The role of consent in the context of BDSM. Sexual Abuse, 32(6), 657–678. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063219842847 PubMed DOI

Dunkley, C. R., Dang, S. S., Chang, S. C. H., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2016). Sexual functioning in young women and men: Role of attachment orientation. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 42(5), 413–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2015.1061075 DOI

Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8 PubMed DOI

Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N. W., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015). Are adult attachment styles categorical or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific attachment orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 354–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000027 PubMed DOI

Fučík, P. (2016). Where are the effects of family structure? The educational level, current partnership and income level of the Czech adult population socialised in single-parent families. Sociologicky Casopis/czech Sociological Review, 52(3), 375–402. https://doi.org/10.13060/00380288.2016.52.3.263 DOI

Gillath, O., Shaver, P. R., Baek, J.-M., & Chun, D. S. (2008). Genetic correlates of adult attachment style. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(10), 1396–1405. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208321484 PubMed DOI

Grady, M. D., Levenson, J. S., & Bolder, T. (2017). Linking adverse childhood effects and attachment: A theory of etiology for sexual offending. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 18(4), 433–444. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015627147 DOI

Grady, M. D., & Yoder, J. (2024). Attachment theory and sexual offending: Making the connection. Current Psychiatry Reports, 26(4), 134–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-024-01488-2 PubMed DOI

Grady, M. D., Yoder, J., & Brown, A. (2021). Childhood maltreatment experiences, attachment, sexual offending: Testing a theory. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(11–12), NP6183–NP6217. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518814262 PubMed DOI

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, A. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (Vol. 6). Pearson Education Limited.

Hanson, R. K., Harris, A. J. R., Scott, T. L., & Helmus, L. M. (2007). Assessing the risk of sexual offenders on community supervision: The Dynamic Supervision Project (User Report, Corrections Research). Public Safety Canada. https://vawnet.org/material/assessing-risk-sexual-offenders-community-supervision-dynamic-supervision-project .

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511 PubMed DOI

Holvoet, L., Huys, W., Coppens, V., Seeuws, J., Goethals, K., & Morrens, M. (2017). Fifty shades of Belgian gray: The prevalence of BDSM-related fantasies and activities in the general population. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 14(9), 1152–1159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2017.07.003 PubMed DOI

Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 DOI

Hudson, S. M., & Ward, T. (1997). Intimacy, loneliness, and attachment style in sexual offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12(3), 323–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626097012003001 DOI

Jenkins, P., Earle‐Richardson, G., Slingerland, D. T., & May, J. (2002). Time dependent memory decay. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 41(2), 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.10035

Jespersen, A. F., Lalumière, M. L., & Seto, M. C. (2009). Sexual abuse history among adult sex offenders and non-sex offenders: A meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(3), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.07.004 DOI

Joyal, C. C., & Carpentier, J. (2017). The prevalence of paraphilic interests and behaviors in the general population: A provincial survey. Journal of Sex Research, 54(2), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1139034 PubMed DOI

Joyal, C. C., & Carpentier, J. (2022). Concordance and discordance between paraphilic interests and behaviors: A follow-up study. Journal of Sex Research, 59(3), 385–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2021.1986801 PubMed DOI

Karantzas, G. C., McCabe, M. P., Karantzas, K. M., Pizzirani, B., Campbell, H., & Mullins, E. R. (2016). Attachment style and less severe forms of sexual coercion: A systematic review. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(5), 1053–1068. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0600-7 PubMed DOI

Knight, R. A., & Sims-Knight, J. E. (2006). The developmental antecedents of sexual coercion against women: Testing alternative hypotheses with structural equation modeling. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989(1), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07294.x DOI

Knight, R. A., Sims-Knight, J., & Guay, J.-P. (2013). Is a separate diagnostic category defensible for paraphilic coercion? Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(2), 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.11.002 DOI

Konrath, S. H., Chopik, W. J., Hsing, C. K., & O’Brien, E. (2014). Changes in adult attachment styles in American college students over time: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18(4), 326–348. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530516 PubMed DOI

Lalumière, M. L., & Quinsey, V. L. (1994). The discriminability of rapists from non-sex offenders using phallometric measures: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 21(1), 150–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854894021001010 DOI

Lalumière, M. L., Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Trautrimas, C. (2006). Are rapists differentially aroused by coercive sex in phallometric assessments? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989(1), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07307.x DOI

Långström, N., Babchishin, K. M., Fazel, S., Lichtenstein, P., & Frisell, T. (2015). Sexual offending runs in families: A 37-year nationwide study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 44(2), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv029 PubMed DOI PMC

Larue, D., Schmidt, A. F., Imhoff, R., Eggers, K., Schönbrodt, F. D., & Banse, R. (2014). Validation of direct and indirect measures of preference for sexualized violence. Psychological Assessment, 26(4), 1173–1183. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000016 PubMed DOI

Levenson, J. S., Willis, G. M., & Prescott, D. S. (2016). Adverse childhood experiences in the lives of male sex offenders: Implications for trauma-informed care. Sexual Abuse, 28(4), 340–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214535819 PubMed DOI

Li, T., & Chan, D. K. (2012). How anxious and avoidant attachment affect romantic relationship quality differently: A meta-analytic review. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(4), 406–419. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1842 DOI

Longpré, N., Sims-Knight, J. E., Neumann, C., Guay, J.-P., & Knight, R. A. (2020). Is paraphilic coercion a different construct from sadism or the lower end of an agonistic continuum? Journal of Criminal Justice, 71, 101743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101743 DOI

Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2639 PubMed DOI

Lyn, T. S., & Burton, D. L. (2004). Adult attachment and sexual offender status. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74(2), 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.74.2.150 PubMed DOI

Lyn, T. S., & Burton, D. L. (2005). Attachment, anger and anxiety of male sexual offenders. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 11(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600500063682 DOI

Maniglio, R. (2012). The role of parent–child bonding, attachment, and interpersonal problems in the development of deviant sexual fantasies in sexual offenders. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13(2), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012440337 DOI

Mann, R. E., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2010). Assessing risk for sexual recidivism: Some proposals on the nature of psychologically meaningful risk factors. Sexual Abuse, 22(2), 191–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210366039 PubMed DOI

Marečková, A., Androvičová, R., Bártová, K., Krejčová, L., & Klapilová, K. (2022). Men with paraphilic interests and their desire to interact with a sex robot. Journal of Future Robot Life, 3(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.3233/FRL-210010 DOI

Marsh, H. W., Hau, K.-T., Balla, J. R., & Grayson, D. (1998). Is more ever too much? The number of indicators per factor in confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 33(2), 181–220. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3302_1 PubMed DOI

Marshall, W. L. (1993). The role of attachments, intimacy, and loneliness in the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending. Sexual and Marital Therapy, 8(2), 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/02674659308408187 DOI

Marshall, W. L., & Barbaree, H. E. (1990). An integrated theory of the etiology of sexual offending. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault (pp. 257–275). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0915-2_15 DOI

Marshall, W. L., & Marshall, L. E. (2000). The origins of sexual offending. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1(3), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838000001003003 DOI

Martinec Nováková, L., Krejčová, L., Androvičová, R., & Klapilová, K. (2025). “I don’t think I need any help about this, I’m in control”: Prevalence and correlates of formal and informal help- seeking in community-based individuals with paraphilic interests in the Czech Republic. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2012). Adult attachment orientations and relationship processes. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 4(4), 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-2589.2012.00142.x DOI

Miner, M. H., Robinson, B. E., Knight, R. A., Berg, D., Swinburne Romine, R., & Netland, J. (2010). Understanding sexual perpetration against children: Effects of attachment style, interpersonal involvement, and hypersexuality. Sexual Abuse, 22(1), 58–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063209353183 PubMed DOI

Müller, L. E., Bertsch, K., Bülau, K., Herpertz, S. C., & Buchheim, A. (2019). Emotional neglect in childhood shapes social dysfunctioning in adults by influencing the oxytocin and the attachment system: Results from a population-based study. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 136, 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.05.011 PubMed DOI

Mundy, C. L., & Cioe, J. D. (2019). Exploring the relationship between paraphilic interests, sex, and sexual and life satisfaction in non-clinical samples. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 28(3), 304–316. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2018-0041 DOI

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). MPlus user’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.

Nickisch, A., Palazova, M., & Ziegler, M. (2020). Dark personalities – dark relationships? An investigation of the relation between the Dark Tetrad and attachment styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 167, 110227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110227 DOI

Oshri, A., Sutton, T. E., Clay-Warner, J., & Miller, J. D. (2015). Child maltreatment types and risk behaviors: Associations with attachment style and emotion regulation dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 73, 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.015 DOI

Parker, G., Tupling, H., & Brown, L. B. (1979). A parental bonding instrument. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1979.tb02487.x

Pedneault, C. I., Babchishin, K. M., Lalumière, M. L., & Seto, M. C. (2020). The association between childhood sexual abuse and sexual coercion in men: A test of possible mediators. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 26(2), 193–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2019.1613575 DOI

Ravitz, P., Maunder, R., Hunter, J., Sthankiya, B., & Lancee, W. (2010). Adult attachment measures: A 25-year review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 69(4), 419–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.08.006 PubMed DOI

Richters, J., de Visser, R. O., Rissel, C. E., Grulich, A. E., & Smith, A. M. A. (2008). Demographic and psychosocial features of participants in bondage and discipline, “sadomasochism” or dominance and submission (BDSM): Data from a national survey. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 5, 1660–1668. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00795.x PubMed DOI

Russell, T. D., Doan, C. M., & King, A. R. (2017). Sexually violent women: The PID-5, everyday sadism, and adversarial sexual attitudes predict female sexual aggression and coercion against male victims. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 242–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.019 DOI

Šaffa, G., Štěrbová, Z., & Prokop, P. (2021). Parental investment is biased toward children named for their fathers. Human Nature, 32(2), 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-021-09396-7 PubMed DOI

Schoenmaker, C., Juffer, F., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Linting, M., Voort, A. V. D., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2015). From maternal sensitivity in infancy to adult attachment representations: A longitudinal adoption study with secure base scripts. Attachment & Human Development, 17(3), 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2015.1037315 DOI

Set, Z. (2019). Potential regulatory elements between attachment styles and psychopathology: Rejection sensitivity and self-esteem. Archives of Neuropsychiatry, 56, 205–212. https://doi.org/10.29399/npa.23451 PubMed DOI PMC

Seto, M. C. (2019). The motivation-facilitation model of sexual offending. Sexual Abuse, 31(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217720919 PubMed DOI

Seto, M. C., Curry, S., Dawson, S. J., Bradford, J. M. W., & Chivers, M. L. (2021). Concordance of paraphilic interests and behaviors. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(4), 424–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1830018 PubMed DOI

Seto, M. C., & Kuban, M. (1996). Criterion-related validity of a phallometric test for paraphilic rape and sadism. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(2), 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00056-9 PubMed DOI

Seto, M. C., Leroux, E. J., Kane, L., Ashbaugh, A. R., Lalumière, M. L., Curry, S., Stephens, S., & Chivers, M. L. (2025). Does the paraphilia scale work for everyone? Confirmatory factor analysis and measurement invariance across gender and sexual orientation groups. Journal of Sex Research, 62, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2024.2353303 PubMed DOI

Smallbone, S. W., & Dadds, M. R. (1998). Childhood attachment and adult attachment in incarcerated adult male sex offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13(5), 555–573. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626098013005001 DOI

Smallbone, S. W., & Dadds, M. R. (2000). Attachment and coercive sexual behavior. Sexual Abuse, 12(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320001200102 PubMed DOI

Sutton, T. E. (2019). Review of attachment theory: Familial predictors, continuity and change, and intrapersonal and relational outcomes. Marriage & Family Review, 55(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2018.1458001 DOI

Ten Brink, S., Coppens, V., Huys, W., & Morrens, M. (2021). The psychology of kink: A survey study into the relationships of trauma and attachment style with BDSM interests. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 18(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-020-00438-w DOI

Tustin, K., & Hayne, H. (2010). Defining the boundary: Age-related changes in childhood amnesia. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1049–1061. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020105

Ward, T., & Beech, A. R. (2004). The etiology of risk: A preliminary model. Sexual Abuse, 16(4), 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320401600402 PubMed DOI

Ward, T., & Beech, A. (2006). An integrated theory of sexual offending. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11(1), 44–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2005.05.002 DOI

Ward, T., Hudson, S. M., & Marshall, W. L. (1996). Attachment style in sex offenders: A preliminary study. Journal of Sex Research, 33(1), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499609551811 DOI

Ward, T., Hudson, S. M., Marshall, W. L., & Siegert, R. (1995). Attachment style and intimacy deficits in sexual offenders: A theoretical framework. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 7(4), 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02256835 DOI

Wismeijer, A. A. J., & Van Assen, M. A. L. M. (2013). Psychological characteristics of BDSM practitioners. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10(8), 1943–1952. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsm.12192 PubMed DOI

World Health Organization. (2004). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems: Tenth revision (2nd ed.). Author.

Zakreski, E., Androvičová, R., Bártová, K., Chronos, A., Krejčová, L., Martinec Nováková, L., & Klapilová, K. (2024). Childhood adversity and offense-supportive cognitions among Czech adults with a sexual interest in violence or children. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 53, 2159–2172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-024-02837-1 PubMed DOI