Secondary sex traits (SSTs) can favour males in intra-sexual competition, allowing females to reliably assess their quality. They can also be connected to other aspects of fitness, such as resistance to parasites and pathogens, as parasites have negative effects on the development of SSTs. Antlers are one of the most recognizable examples of SSTs whose development is regulated by testosterone and reflects the actual condition of the bearer. Elevated testosterone can exaggerate the size of SSTs while impairing the function of the immune system ("The Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis") posing a trade-off between antler development and immune function. In this study, we experimentally manipulated the parasite load in captive red deer (Cervus elaphus) males with Ivermectin during antler development for two consecutive years. Expecting an inverse proportionality between parasite load and antler size, we hypothesized the treated deer to have larger antlers than the untreated ones. Our results showed that, following the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis, parasite load was positively associated with testosterone levels. However, the application of Ivermectin suppressed the parasite load of the treated animals but did not lead to the development of larger antlers. Instead, it significantly suppressed the concentration of testosterone in the treated animals, whilst the animals that had higher testosterone also had the highest parasite load. Our findings show that Ivermectin can potentially decrease the levels of testosterone and, consequently, antler size. These findings have important implications for the management of captive populations, especially in contexts where the development of large trophies is desired.

• Klíčová slova
• Antlers, Immunocompetence handicap, Male ornaments, Parasite load, Red deer, Testosterone,
• MeSH
• ivermektin farmakologie   MeSH
• parazitární zátěž veterinární   MeSH
• parohy * MeSH
• testosteron farmakologie   MeSH
• vysoká zvěř * MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• ženské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• Názvy látek
• ivermektin MeSH
• testosteron MeSH

We equipped 17 captive red deer males (Cervus elaphus) with GPS collars to measure inter-individual distances throughout the 5-months of the antler growth period. We expected some individuals to associate regularly with others while others would not. We predicted that males aggregating with others within a socially stable environment (Associates) would benefit from a form of "social buffering" and would likely have lowered cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) concentrations. Males only irregularly joining social groupings would experience elevated levels of aggression; according to the "Challenge hypothesis", their T and C concentrations should increase. Interacting with a higher proportion of Associates did indeed reduce C concentrations. Conversely, avoiding Associates and challenging other males stimulated the T secretion. Admittedly, males avoiding regular proximity to others tended to develop the largest antlers. They probably benefited from frequent successful agonistic threats to conspecifics, resulting in elevated T concentrations. Regular association with tolerant, conspecifics and "social buffering" did not seem sufficient for producing larger antlers despite reducing C concentrations. Alternative social strategies were adopted within the same group of individuals and showed how the trade-off between these strategies could have an essential impact on C and T concentrations.

• MeSH
• hydrokortison MeSH
• parohy * MeSH
• testosteron MeSH
• vysoká zvěř * MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• Názvy látek
• hydrokortison MeSH
• testosteron MeSH

Here, we report on the exceptionally well-preserved deer record from the locality of Pantalla (central Italy), dated in the Early Pleistocene (ca. 2.1-2.0 million years ago). The fossils show a combination of characters that allows an unambiguous attribution to 'Pseudodama' nestii, of which they represent one of the most informative collections to date. Our comparisons-also conducted through CT-based methods on endocranial structures-reveal that the cranial and postcranial skeleton of 'P.' nestii displays a mosaic of intermediate characters between extant Dama and Cervus, but also that the affinities with Dama are prevalent. Some Cervus-like features especially in cranial morphology, can be interpreted as plesiomorphic characters supporting a basal position of 'Pseudodama' among the Cervini. Interestingly, three bone anomalies are described in the two male crania of 'P.' nestii from Pantalla and are interpreted as palaeotraumatological evidence resulting from different injuries suffered by the deer during their life. This allows opening a treasure trove of information on paleobiological aspects, including ontogeny and antler cycle and function.

• MeSH
• lebka anatomie a histologie   MeSH
• parohy * MeSH
• vysoká zvěř * anatomie a histologie   MeSH
• zkameněliny MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Geografické názvy
• Itálie MeSH

Out of rut, male red deer (Cervus elaphus) associate themselves in bachelor groups where animals compete for rank position via agonistic interactions. In a previous study on red deer, males were recognized either as "Non-Fighters" (NF, low frequency of attacks) or "Fighters" (F, high frequency of attacks). This study, therefore, aims to verify the consistency of the inter-individual differences in fighting attitude across different social contexts and investigate whether they could be considered an individual characteristic. Behavioral consistency was presumed across three different sampling seasons, assuming that NF would have lower cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) concentrations than the F males. In 2015 the males were kept in one large group and labelled NF and F. In 2016, the herd was divided into two subgroups ("NF" and "F") based on the frequency of attacks. Finally, in 2017, the males were divided into two randomly composed subgroups. Data about agonistic behavior and concentration of C and T were collected during each season. In 2015 the individuals differed only for the fighting attitude. After the division, the frequency of the attacks always increased, being consistently lower in NF than in F. Unexpectedly, a slight increase in the concentration of C was detected in the NF in 2016, compared to the F who experienced no difference neither in 2015 nor 2017. No significant differences were found in T. We concluded that, even though the males had shown behavioral plasticity, their diversified interaction-prone attitude had been maintained despite the modifications of the social environment.

• Klíčová slova
• Cortisol, Hormones, Red deer, Social behavior, Testosterone,
• MeSH
• agonistické chování MeSH
• chování zvířat * MeSH
• hydrokortison metabolismus   MeSH
• parohy růst a vývoj   MeSH
• roční období MeSH
• tělesná hmotnost MeSH
• testosteron metabolismus   MeSH
• vysoká zvěř růst a vývoj   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• hydrokortison MeSH
• testosteron MeSH

Animal inflicted fatal or near fatal injuries are well described in the forensic literature, with the most frequently described cases involving dogs, large cats and bears. To our knowledge, a deer inflicted fatality has not been described in the forensic literature previously. This article reports a case of a 64-year-old male, who was found lying in a pool of blood near an enclosure for stags and hinds at the end of October. There were mechanical defects on his jacket and trousers, which appeared to be torn or penetrated, as well as multiple lacerations and stab wounds in different parts of his body. The type and location of the injuries the man had sustained strongly suggested that another person had been involved in the incident that had led to his death. The cause of death was deemed as external exsanguination due to multiple stab wounds to large vessels. After evaluating all of the information regarding the circumstances around the death, the case was classified as a deer attack related fatality, and the manner of death was determined to be accidental. The man was most probably attacked by one of the deer while he was refilling the animal feeder. A substantial increase in the levels of selected hormones, especially testosterone, during the rutting season explains the increased levels of aggression shown by the deer that led to a fatal outcome for the decedent.

• Klíčová slova
• Deer, Fatal attack, Lacerated wounds, Rutting season, Stab wounds,
• MeSH
• agrese * MeSH
• bodné rány patologie   MeSH
• exsanguinace etiologie   MeSH
• krevní skvrny MeSH
• lidé středního věku MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• parohy * MeSH
• sexuální chování zvířat * MeSH
• vysoká zvěř * MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé středního věku MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• kazuistiky MeSH

Horns are permanent structures projecting from the head of bovids, consisting of a bony horncore covered with a layer of skin and then a sheath of keratinous material showing variability of growth intensity based on nutrition. From the point of view of the horn's mechanical properties, the keratin sheath has been widely studied, but only a few studies have considered the complete structure of the horn and fewer studies have focused on the bony horncore and its characteristics. The latter showed the important role of the bony core, when cranial appendages are subject to mechanical stress (as happens during fighting). The mechanical properties of bone material, along with its mineral profile, are also important, because they can show effects of different factors, such as nutrition and mineral deficiencies in diet. For this reason, eight horncores of captive common eland male were sampled at four positions along the vertical axis of the horn. The main aim was to study variation in mechanical properties and the mineral content along the vertical axis of the horncores. We further analysed whether the spiral bony ridge present on eland horncores differs in any of the studied properties from adjacent parts of the horncore. In other antelopes, spiral ridges on the horns have been proposed to increase grip during wrestling between males. Cross-sections of the horncores were performed at four positions along the longitudinal axis and, for each position, two bone bars were extracted to be tested in impact and bending. Moreover, in the first sampling position (the closest position to the base) two bars were extracted from the spiralled bony area. The resulting fragments were used to measure ash content, bone density and mineral content. Results showed that horn bone decreased along the vertical axis, in ash (-36%), density (-32%), and in impact work 'U' (marginally significant but large effect: -48%). The concentration of several minerals decreased significantly (Mg, Cr, Mn and Tl by -33%, -25%, -31%, -43%, respectively) between the basal and the uppermost sampling site. The bone tissue of the horncore spiral compared with non-spiral bone of the same position showed a lower ash content (53% vs. 57%), Mg and Mn; in addition to showing approximately half values in work to peak force 'W', bending strength 'BS' and 'U', but not in Young's modulus of elasticity 'E'. In conclusion, similarly to the results in a totally different fighting bony structure, the antlers, the horncore of eland shows advantageous parameters in bone tissue of the base in respect to the tip, with higher values for mechanical properties, density and mineral profile. Moreover, the spiral bone tissue showed lower material mechanical properties. Probably the spiral tissue of the horn may have a role in deflecting potential cross-sectional fractures during wrestling. In addition, it may serve to improve the grip during wrestling, and we propose that it may also prevent risk of rotation of sheath with respect to internal bone not only in this, but also in other straight bovid horns.

• Klíčová slova
• Processus cornualis., bovids, horn, minerals,
• MeSH
• mechanický stres MeSH
• parohy anatomie a histologie   chemie   fyziologie   MeSH
• skot MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• skot MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH

The main factors affecting the mechanical (and other) properties of bone, including antler, are the proportions of ash (especially Ca and P) and collagen content. However, some trace minerals may also play more important roles than would be expected, given their low levels in bone and antler. One such trace mineral is Cu. Here, we studied the effects of Cu supplementation on the mechanical and structural characteristics, and mineral content of antlers from yearling and adult (4 years of age) red deer fed a balanced diet. Deer (n=35) of different ages (21 yearlings and 14 adults) were studied. A total of 18 stags (11 yearlings and 7 adults) were injected with Cu (0.83 mg Cu/kg BW) every 42 days, whereas the remaining 17 (10 yearlings and 7 adults) were injected with physiological saline solution (control group). The Cu content of serum was analysed at the beginning of the trial and 84 days after the first injection to assess whether the injected Cu was mobilized in blood. Also, the mechanical and structural properties of antlers and the mineral content in their cortical walls were examined at three (yearlings) or four (adults) points along the antler beam. The effect of Cu supplementation was different in yearlings and adults. In yearlings, supplementation increased the Cu content of serum by 28%, but did not affect antler properties. However, in adults, Cu supplementation increased the Cu content of serum by 38% and tended to increase the cortical thickness of antlers (P=0.06). Therefore, we conclude that, even in animals receiving balanced diets, supplementation with Cu could increase antler cortical thickness in adult deer, although not in yearlings. This may improve the trophy value of antlers, as well as having potential implications for bones in elderly humans, should Cu supplementation have similar effects on bones as those observed in antlers.

• Klíčová slova
• Cervus elaphus, Cu, antler bone tissue, mechanical properties, mineral composition,
• MeSH
• fosfor analýza   MeSH
• kolagen analýza   MeSH
• kosti a kostní tkáň anatomie a histologie   chemie   účinky léků   MeSH
• měď aplikace a dávkování   MeSH
• minerály analýza   MeSH
• parohy anatomie a histologie   chemie   účinky léků   MeSH
• potravní doplňky * MeSH
• vápník analýza   MeSH
• vysoká zvěř anatomie a histologie   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• Názvy látek
• fosfor MeSH
• kolagen MeSH
• měď MeSH
• minerály MeSH
• vápník MeSH

Bone ash, collagen, Ca and P composition, are considered the main factors affecting mechanical properties in bones. However, a series of studies in bone and antler have shown that some trace minerals, such as manganese, may play a role whose importance exceeds what may be expected considering their low content. A previous study showed that a reduction in manganese in antlers during a year of late winter frosts led to generalized antler breakage in Spain, which included a reduction of 30% of cortical thickness, 27% reduction in impact energy, and 10% reduction in work to peak force. Starting for this observation, we experimentally studied the effects of manganese supplementation in adults and yearling (yearlings) red deer under a balanced diet. Subjects were 29 deer of different age classes (adult n = 19, yearlings n = 10) that were divided in a manganese injected group (n = 14) and a control group (n = 15). Antler content in ashes and minerals, intrinsic mechanical properties and cross section structure were examined at 4 points along the antler beam. A one way ANOVA (mean per antler) showed that in yearlings, manganese supplementation only increased its content and that of Fe. However, in adults, Mn supplementation increased the mean content per antler of Ca, Na, P, B, Co, Cu, K, Mn, Ni, Se (while Si content was reduced), and impact work but not Young's modulus of elasticity, bending strength or work to peak force. A GLM series on characteristics in the uppermost part examined in the antler, often showing physiological exhaustion and depletion of body stores, showed also a 16% increase in work to peak force in the antlers of the treated group. Thus, manganese supplementation altered mineral composition of antler and improved structure and some mechanical properties despite animals having a balanced diet.

• MeSH
• biomechanika MeSH
• dieta MeSH
• lineární modely MeSH
• mangan aplikace a dávkování   MeSH
• minerály metabolismus   MeSH
• parohy chemie   ultrastruktura   MeSH
• potravní doplňky analýza   MeSH
• vysoká zvěř anatomie a histologie   růst a vývoj   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• mangan MeSH
• minerály MeSH

In this review, we analyze endocrine aspects of the relationships between antlerogenesis and rank-related behavior. The explanation of these relationships has been based on the presumption that the antler growth is regulated by hormones modulated by agonistic behavior. Originally, we assumed that these relationships are primarily testosterone dependent. In the eighties, it was reported that the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is the antler-stimulating hormone. This hypothesis was supposed to replace an earlier theory that the antler-stimulating hormones are either androgens or their derivatives. Here, we present historical and recent views on these issues. In particular, we analyze the arguments in favor and against the role of testosterone and IGF-1 in antler growth and present a comparison of the results obtained across some deer species. In this context, we review and discuss experiments with castration of various deer species and analyze data from papers dealing with in vivo studies. We conclude that testosterone and not IGF-1 is the main antler stimulating and regulating hormone, and that concentrations of testosterone may be modified by social behavior.

• MeSH
• chování zvířat * MeSH
• endokrinní žlázy fyziologie   MeSH
• parohy růst a vývoj   MeSH
• vysoká zvěř růst a vývoj   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH

Antlers as a potential model for bone growth and development have become an object of rising interest. To elucidate processes explaining how antler growth is regulated, in vitro cultures have been established. However, until now, there has been no standard method to cultivate antler cells and in vitro results are often opposite to those reported in vivo. In addition, many factors which are often not taken into account under in vitro conditions may play an important role in the development of antler cells. In this study we investigated the effects of the antler growth stage, the male individuality, passaged versus primary cultures and the effect of foetal calf serum concentrations on proliferative potential of mixed antler cell cultures in vitro, derived from regenerating antlers of red deer males (Cervus elaphus). The proliferation potential of antler cells was measured by incorporation of (3)H thymidine. Our results demonstrate that there is no significant effect of the antler growth stage, whereas male individuality and all other examined factors significantly affected antler cell proliferation. Furthermore, our results suggest that primary cultures may better represent in vivo conditions and processes occurring in regenerating antlers. In conclusion, before all main factors affecting antler cell proliferation in vitro will be satisfactorily investigated, results of in vitro studies focused on hormonal regulation of antler growth should be taken with extreme caution.

• MeSH
• kultivované buňky MeSH
• parohy cytologie   MeSH
• proliferace buněk MeSH
• sérum MeSH
• vysoká zvěř anatomie a histologie   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• mužské pohlaví MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH