Cough is a vital airway reflex that keeps the respiratory tract wisely protected. It is also a sign of many diseases of the respiratory system and it may become a disease in its own right. Even though the efficacy of antitussive compounds is extensively studied in animal models with promising results, the treatment of pathological cough in humans is insufficient at the moment. The limited translational potential of animal models used to study cough causes, mechanisms and possible therapeutic targets stems from multiple sources. First of all, cough induced in the laboratory by mechanical or chemical stimuli is far from natural cough present in human disease. The main objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary of animal models currently used in cough research and to address their advantages and disadvantages. We also want to encourage cough researchers to call for precision is research by addressing the sex bias which has existed in basic cough research for decades and discuss the role of specific pathogen-free (SPF) animals.

• Keywords
• Animal models, Animal welfare, Cough, Reflex, Translation,
• MeSH
• Cough * MeSH
• Disease Models, Animal * MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
• Review MeSH

Animal testing has made a significant and unequalled contribution to important discoveries and advancements in the fields of research, medicine, vaccine development, and drug discovery. Each year, millions of animals are sacrificed for various experiments, and this is an ongoing process. However, the debate on the ethical and sensible usage of animals in in vivo experimentation is equally important. The need to explore and adopt newer alternatives to animals so as to comply with the goal of reduce, refine, and replace needs attention. Besides the ever-increasing debate on ethical issues, animal research has additional drawbacks (need of trained labour, requirement of breeding area, lengthy protocols, high expenses, transport barriers, difficulty to extrapolate data from animals to humans, etc.). With this scenario, the present review has been framed to give a comprehensive insight into the possible alternative options worth exploring in this direction especially targeting replacements for animal models of bacterial infections. There have been some excellent reviews discussing on the alternate methods for replacing and reducing animals in drug research. However, reviews that discuss the replacements in the field of medical bacteriology with emphasis on animal bacterial infection models are purely limited. The present review discusses on the use of (a) non-mammalian models and (b) alternative systems such as microfluidic chip-based models and microdosing aiming to give a detailed insight into the prospects of these alternative platforms to reduce the number of animals being used in infection studies. This would enlighten the scientific community working in this direction to be well acquainted with the available new approaches and alternatives so that the 3R strategy can be successfully implemented in the field of antibacterial drug research and testing.

• Keywords
• Alternatives, Animal models, Bacterial infections, Drug discovery, Simulation,
• MeSH
• Bacterial Infections * prevention & control   veterinary   MeSH
• Animal Experimentation * MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Models, Animal MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH

The concept of animal welfare is evolving due to progress in our scientific understanding of animal biology and changing societal expectations. Animal welfare science has been primarily concerned with minimizing suffering, but there is growing interest in also promoting positive experiences, grouped under the term positive animal welfare (PAW). However, there are discrepancies in the use of the term PAW. An interdisciplinary group arrived at a consensus that 'PAW can be defined as the animal flourishing through the experience of predominantly positive mental states and the development of competence and resilience. PAW goes beyond ensuring good physical health and the prevention and alleviation of suffering. It encompasses animals experiencing positive mental states resulting from rewarding experiences, including having choices and opportunities to actively pursue goals and achieve desired outcomes'. The definition also considers individual and species-specific differences. It provides a framework for researchers to investigate PAW and thereby generate innovative, informative and reproducible science. Studies of PAW can contribute to a richer picture of an animal's life and may elucidate the biological foundations of happiness. The definition creates opportunities to inspire scientific progress in animal biology and to align animal care practices, legislation and markets with societal expectations.

• Keywords
• animal emotion, flourishing, good life, good welfare, happiness, pleasure,
• MeSH
• Animal Husbandry methods   MeSH
• Consensus * MeSH
• Animal Welfare * MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

OBJECTIVE: The need of today's research is to develop successful and reliable diabetic animal models for understanding the disease susceptibility and pathogenesis. Enormous success of animal models had already been acclaimed for identifying key genetic and environmental factors like Idd loci and effects of microorganisms including the gut microbiota. Furthermore, animal models had also helped in identifying many therapeutic targets and strategies for immune-intervention. In spite of a quite success, we have acknowledged that many of the discovered immunotherapies are working on animals and did not have a significant impact on human. Number of animal models were developed in the past to accelerate drug discovery pipeline. However, due to poor initial screening and assessment on inequivalent animal models, the percentage of drug candidates who succeeded during clinical trials was very low. Therefore, it is essential to bridge this gap between pre-clinical research and clinical trial by validating the existing animal models for consistency. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: In this review, we have discussed and evaluated the significance of animal models on behalf of published data on PUBMED. Amongst the most popular diabetic animal models, we have selected six animal models (e.g. BioBreeding rat, "LEW IDDM rat", "Nonobese Diabetic (NOD) mouse", "STZ RAT", "LEPR Mouse" and "Zucker Diabetic Fatty (ZDF) rat" and ranked them as per their published literature on PUBMED. Moreover, the vision and brief imagination for developing an advanced and robust diabetic model of 21st century was discussed with the theme of one miceone human concept including organs-on-chips.

• Keywords
• Animal model, diabetes mellitus, humanized animal model, immunotherapies, meta-analysis, pathogens.,
• MeSH
• Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 chemically induced   drug therapy   genetics   MeSH
• Species Specificity MeSH
• Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental chemically induced   drug therapy   MeSH
• Hypoglycemic Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Mice, Mutant Strains MeSH
• Mice, Inbred C57BL MeSH
• Mice, Inbred NOD MeSH
• Rats, Inbred BB MeSH
• Rats, Inbred Lew MeSH
• Rats, Zucker MeSH
• Forecasting MeSH
• Drug Evaluation, Preclinical trends   MeSH
• Streptozocin MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Hypoglycemic Agents MeSH
• Streptozocin MeSH

Animal migration has fascinated scientists and the public alike for centuries, yet migratory animals are facing diverse threats that could lead to their demise. The Anthropocene is characterised by the reality that humans are the dominant force on Earth, having manifold negative effects on biodiversity and ecosystem function. Considerable research focus has been given to assessing anthropogenic impacts on the numerical abundance of species/populations, whereas relatively less attention has been devoted to animal migration. However, there are clear linkages, for example, where human-driven impacts on migration behaviour can lead to population/species declines or even extinction. Here, we explore anthropogenic threats to migratory animals (in all domains - aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial) using International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Threat Taxonomy classifications. We reveal the diverse threats (e.g. human development, disease, invasive species, climate change, exploitation, pollution) that impact migratory wildlife in varied ways spanning taxa, life stages and type of impact (e.g. from direct mortality to changes in behaviour, health, and physiology). Notably, these threats often interact in complex and unpredictable ways to the detriment of wildlife, further complicating management. Fortunately, we are beginning to identify strategies for conserving and managing migratory animals in the Anthropocene. We provide a set of strategies that, if embraced, have the potential to ensure that migratory animals, and the important ecological functions sustained by migration, persist.

• Keywords
• animal movement, biodiversity, conservation, natural resources management, phenology, wildlife biology,
• MeSH
• Biodiversity MeSH
• Ecosystem MeSH
• Climate Change MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Human Activities MeSH
• Animal Migration * MeSH
• Conservation of Natural Resources * MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH

Human-Animal interaction (HAI) refers to any contact between humans and animals. Despite the lack of standardized measures of evaluation, one possible tool is the Human Animal Interaction Scale (HAIS). This study aimed to evaluate it in Czech language and to verify its use in clinical settings. One group of participants included 85 non-clinical volunteers; the second included 22 clinical participants, who were hospitalized in a long-term inpatient department All participants filled out the HAIS, the Companion Animal Bonding Scale (CABS) and the Companion Animal Semantic Differential (CASD). The Czech HAIS achieved similarly good psychometric properties as the original scale. The Cronbach's alpha showed strong internal consistency (α = 0.920) in the sample of volunteers, but low internal consistency (α = 0.656) in the group of clinical participants. In non-clinical volunteers, all scales and subscales correlated mutually at the p < 0.01 level. In the group of clinical participants, the CABS did not show significant correlations with other scales and subscales, nor was there a correlation of total HAIS score with the perceived rapport with animals. The findings of this study suggest that the Czech HAIS may be an effective tool for evaluating HAI with non-clinical contingents, however careful modification is suggested before clinical use. One reason for this is the difficulty in conducting some activities assessed by the scale in a clinical practice or hospital setting.

• Keywords
• evaluation, human animal interaction, scale,
• MeSH
• Human-Animal Interaction * MeSH
• Language * MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Surveys and Questionnaires MeSH
• Psychometrics MeSH
• Reproducibility of Results MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
• Geographicals
• Czech Republic MeSH

BACKGROUND: Recent research has produced an explosion of experimental data on the complex neurobiological mechanisms of developmental disorders including autism. Animal models are one approach to studying the phenotypic features and molecular basis of autism. In this review, we describe progress in understanding synaptogenesis and alterations to this process with special emphasis on the cell adhesion molecules and scaffolding proteins implicated in autism. Genetic mouse model experiments are discussed in relation to alterations to selected synaptic proteins and consequent behavioral deficits measured in animal experiments. METHODS: Pubmed databases were used to search for original and review articles on animal and human clinical studies on autism. RESULTS: The cell adhesion molecules, neurexin, neurolignin and the Shank family of proteins are important molecular targets associated with autism. CONCLUSION: The heterogeneity of the autism spectrum of disorders limits interpretation of information acquired from any single animal model or animal test. We showed synapse-specific/ model-specific defects associated with a given genotype in these models. Characterization of mouse models with genetic variations may help study the mechanisms of autism in humans. However, it will be necessary to apply new analytic paradigms in using genetically modified mice for understanding autism etiology in humans. Further studies are needed to create animal models with mutations that match the molecular and neural bases of autism.

• Keywords
• animal models, autism, cell adhesion molecules, scaffolding proteins, synaptogenesis,
• MeSH
• Autistic Disorder etiology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Disease Models, Animal * MeSH
• Cell Adhesion Molecules genetics   physiology   MeSH
• Mice MeSH
• Nerve Tissue Proteins genetics   physiology   MeSH
• Synapses genetics   physiology   MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Mice MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Cell Adhesion Molecules MeSH
• Nerve Tissue Proteins MeSH

BACKGROUND: The objective of this systematic review is to summarize the available animal models of ischemic limbs, and to provide an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of each animal model and individual method of limb ischemia creation. METHODS: A review of literature was conducted using the PubMed and Web of Science pages. Various types of experimental animals and surgical approaches used in creating ischemic limbs were evaluated. Other outcomes of interest were the specific characteristics of the individual experimental animals, and duration of tissue ischemia. RESULTS: The most commonly used experimental animals were mice, followed by rabbits, rats, pigs, miniature pigs, and sheep. Single or double arterial ligation and excision of the entire femoral artery was the most often used method of ischemic limb creation. Other methods comprised single or double arterial electrocoagulation, use of ameroid constrictors, photochemically induced thrombosis, and different types of endovascular methods. The shortest duration of tissue ischemia was 7 days, the longest 90 days. CONCLUSIONS: This review shows that mice are among the most commonly used animals in limb ischemia research. Simple ligation and excision of the femoral artery is the most common method of creating an ischemic limb; nevertheless, it can result in acute rather than chronic ischemia. A two-stage sequential approach and methods using ameroid constrictors or endovascular blinded stent grafts are more suitable for creating a gradual arterial occlusion typically seen in humans. Selecting the right mouse strain or animal with artificially produced diabetes or hyperlipidaemia is crucial in chronic ischemic limb research. Moreover, the observation period following the onset of ischemia should last at least 14 days, preferably 4 weeks.

• Keywords
• Diabetes mellitus, Experimental animal, Foot ulcer, In vivo model, Limb ischemia,
• MeSH
• Femoral Artery * surgery   MeSH
• Ischemia * MeSH
• Rabbits MeSH
• Rats MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Disease Models, Animal MeSH
• Models, Animal MeSH
• Mice MeSH
• Sheep MeSH
• Swine MeSH
• Stents MeSH
• Models, Theoretical MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Rabbits MeSH
• Rats MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Mice MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH
• Systematic Review MeSH

Both acute and chronic liver diseases are frequent and potentially lethal conditions. Development of new therapeutic strategies and drugs depends on understanding of liver injury pathogenesis and progression, which can be studied on suitable animal models. Due to the complexity of liver injury, the understanding of underlying mechanisms of liver diseases and their treatment has been limited by the lack of satisfactory animal models. SO far, a wide variety of animals has been used to mimic human liver disease, however, none of the models include all its clinical aspects seen in humans. Rodents, namely rats and mice, represent the largest group of liver disease models despite their limited resemblance to human. On the other hand, large animal models like pigs, previously used mostly in acute liver failure modeling, are now playing an important role in studying various acute and chronic liver diseases. Although significant progress has been made, the research in hepatology should continue to establish animal models anatomically and physiologically as close to human as possible to allow for translation of the experimental results to human medicine. This review presents various approaches to the study of acute and chronic liver diseases in animal models, with special emphasis on large animal models and their role in experimental surgery.

• Keywords
• animal models, experimental surgery, liver disease, pig,
• MeSH
• Rats MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Disease Models, Animal * MeSH
• Mice MeSH
• Liver Diseases * MeSH
• Swine MeSH
• Disease Progression MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Rats MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Mice MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

Critical limb ischemia is a serious form of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). The consequences of lower limb ischemia are pain, claudication and chronic non-healing wounds. Patients with diabetes are especially at a high risk for developing non-healing ulcers. The most serious complication is major amputation. For this reason, there is a significant medical requirement to develop new therapies in order to prevent the progression of PAD. For research purposes, it is crucial to find an appropriate model of chronic ischemia to explore the processes of wound healing. According to recently acquired information, rodents are currently the most commonly used animals in these types of studies. The main advantage of using small animals is the low financial cost due to the relatively small demand for food, water and living space. The disadvantage is their anatomy, which is different from that of humans. Larger animals have a more human-like anatomy and physiology, but they require more expense and space for housing. A bipedicle skin flap and its modifications are popular models for ischemic wounds. In order to secure healing through re-epithelisation, as opposed to contraction in rodents, there is a need to remove the panniculus carnosus muscle. Wounds in other experimental animals heal primarily through re-epithelisation. The application of a silicone mesh underneath the flap prevents vascular regrowth in ischemic tissue. There is an ongoing effort to create in vivo diabetic models for chronic ulcer research. This work presents an overview of existing animal models of ischemic wounds.

• Keywords
• animal experimental model, diabetes mellitus, diabetic ulcers, in vivo model, ischemic wound,
• MeSH
• Amputation, Surgical MeSH
• Wound Healing * physiology   MeSH
• Ischemia MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Models, Animal MeSH
• Peripheral Arterial Disease * complications   MeSH
• Models, Theoretical MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
• Review MeSH