The analysis of shape is a key part of anatomical research and in the large majority of cases landmarks provide a standard starting point. However, while the technology of image capture has developed rapidly and in particular three-dimensional imaging is widely available, the definitions of anatomical landmarks remain rooted in their two-dimensional origins. In the important case of the human face, standard definitions often require careful orientation of the subject. This paper considers the definitions of facial landmarks from an interdisciplinary perspective, including biological and clinical motivations, issues associated with imaging and subsequent analysis, and the mathematical definition of surface shape using differential geometry. This last perspective provides a route to definitions of landmarks based on surface curvature, often making use of ridge and valley curves, which is genuinely three-dimensional and is independent of orientation. Specific definitions based on curvature are proposed. These are evaluated, along with traditional definitions, in a study that uses a hierarchical (random effects) model to estimate the error variation that is present at several different levels within the image capture process. The estimates of variation at these different levels are of interest in their own right but, in addition, evidence is provided that variation is reduced at the observer level when the new landmark definitions are used.

Centre for Image Processing and Analysis Dublin City University Dublin Ireland

College of MVLS School of Medicine Dental School The University of Glasgow Glasgow UK

Department of Information and Communication Technologies Pompeu Fabra University Barcelona Spain

Institute of Mathematics and Statistics Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Institute of Technology Tralee Kerry Ireland

Molecular and Cellular Therapeutics Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Dublin Ireland

School of Computing Science The University of Glasgow Glasgow UK

School of Dentistry The University of Leeds Leeds UK

School of Mathematics and Statistics The University of Glasgow Glasgow UK

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Al‐Khatib AR (2010) Facial three dimensional surface imaging: an overview. Arch Orofac Sci 1, 1–8.

Bock M, Bowman, A (2006) On the measurement and analysis of asymmetry with applications to facial modelling. J Roy Stat Soc Ser C‐Appl Stat 55, 77–91.

Boehnen C, Flynn P (2005) Accuracy of 3d scanning technologies in a face scanning scenario. In: 3‐D Digital Imaging and Modeling, 2005. 3DIM 2005. Fifth International Conference on, pp. 310–317. IEEE.

Bookstein F (1991) Morphometric Tools for Landmark Data: Geometry and Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Çeliktutan O, Ulukaya S, Sankur B (2013) A comparative study of face landmarking techniques. EURASIP J Image Video Proc 2013, 13.

Dryden IL, Mardia K (1998) Statistical Shape Analysis. New York: Wiley.

Eilers P, Marx B (1996) Flexible smoothing with b‐splines and penalties. Stat Sci 11, 89–102.

Farkas L (1994) Anthropometry of the Head and Face, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press.

Gupta S, Markey MK, Bovik AC (2010) Anthropometric 3d face recognition. Int J Comp Vis 90, 331–349.

Hennessy R, Baldwin P, Browne D, Kinsella A, Waddington J (2007) Three‐dimensional laser surface imaging and geometric morphometrics resolve frontonasal dysmorphology in schizophrenia. Biol Psych 61, 1187–1194. PubMed

Hood C, Bock M, Hosey M, Bowman A, Ayoub A (2003) Facial asymmetry – 3d assessment of infants with cleft lip and palate. Int J Paed Dent 13, 404–410. PubMed

Jahanbin S, Bovik AC, Choi H (2008) Automated facial feature detection from portrait and range images. In: Image analysis and interpretation, 2008. SSIAI 2008. IEEE southwest symposium on, pp. 25–28. IEEE.

Koenderink J (1990) Solid Shape, Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Koenderink J, van Doorn A (1992) Surface shape and curvature scales. Image vis comp 10, 557–564.

Martin R., Saller K (1957) Lehrbuch der Anthropologie in Systematischer Darstellung. Stuttgart: G. Fischerer.

Moons T, Van Gool L, Vergauwen M (2009) 3d Reconstruction from Multiple Images: Part 1: Principles. Foundations and Trends in Computer Graphics and Vision: 4, 287–404.

Pamplona Segundo M, Silva L, Bellon ORP, Queirolo CC (2010) Automatic face segmentation and facial landmark detection in range images. Syst Man Cybernet B: Cybernet IEEE Trans 40, 1319–1330. PubMed

Pears N, Liu Y, Bunting P (2012) 3D Imaging, Analysis and Applications. New York: Springer.

Peng X, Bennamoun M, Mian AS (2011) A training‐free nose tip detection method from face range images. Patt Recog 44, 544–558.

Perakis P, Passalis G, Theoharis T, Kakadiaris IA (2013) 3d facial landmark detection under large yaw and expression variations. Patt Anal Mach Intell, IEEE Trans 35, 1552–1564. PubMed

Pinheiro JC, Bates DM (2000) Mixed‐Effects Models in S and S‐PLUS. New York: Springer.

Prasad S, Katina S, Hennessy RJ, Murphy KC, Bowman AW, Waddington JL (2015) Craniofacial dysmorphology in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome by 3d laser surface imaging and geometric morphometrics: illuminating the developmental relationship to risk for psychosis. Am J Med Genet 167A, 529–536. PubMed PMC

Sansoni G, Trebeschi M, Docchio F (2009) State‐of‐the‐art and applications of 3d imaging sensors in industry, cultural heritage, medicine, and criminal investigation. Sensors 9, 568–601. PubMed PMC

Sukno FM, Waddington JL, Whelan Paul F (2015) 3d facial landmark localization with asymmetry patterns and shape regression from incomplete local features. IEEE Trans Cybernet 45, 1717–1730. PubMed

Thompson D (1963) On Growth and Form. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Weber GW, Bookstein FL (2011) Virtual Anthropology: A Guide to a New Interdisciplinary Field. New York: Springer.

Refining the resolution of craniofacial dysmorphology in bipolar disorder as an index of brain dysmorphogenesis

A Hierarchical Curve-Based Approach to the Analysis of Manifold Data

Translational Genetic Modelling of 3D Craniofacial Dysmorphology: Elaborating the Facial Phenotype of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Through the "Prism" of Schizophrenia