The genetic alphabet consists of the four letters: C, A, G, and T in DNA and C,A,G, and U in RNA. Triplets of these four letters jointly encode 20 different amino acids out of which proteins of all organisms are built. This system is universal and is found in all kingdoms of life. However, bases in DNA and RNA can be chemically modified. In DNA, around 10 different modifications are known, and those have been studied intensively over the past 20 years. Scientific studies on DNA modifications and proteins that recognize them gave rise to the large field of epigenetic and epigenomic research. The outcome of this intense research field is the discovery that development, ageing, and stem-cell dependent regeneration but also several diseases including cancer are largely controlled by the epigenetic state of cells. Consequently, this research has already led to the first FDA approved drugs that exploit the gained knowledge to combat disease. In recent years, the ~150 modifications found in RNA have come to the focus of intense research. Here we provide a perspective on necessary and expected developments in the fast expanding area of RNA modifications, termed epitranscriptomics.

b Oslo University Hospital Oslo Norway

b UNIVERSITA DEGLI STUDI DI TRENTO Italy

ba University of Nottingham School of Biosceinces Nottingham United Kingdom

c CEITEC Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

c International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw Poland

e IPATIMUP Porto Portugal

e University of Cambridge Cambridge United Kingdom

f Hospital Complex of Malaga Malaga Spain

f Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology Bucharest Romania

g Faculty of Biology University o Bucharest Bucharest Romania

g Stockholm University Sweden

h IMBA Institute of Molecular Biotechnology Vienna Austria

h Institute for Biological Research Sinisa Stankovic Belgrade Serbia

i Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade Serbia

i Molecular and Cellular Epigenetics Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics University of Liege Sart Tilman Belgium

Instituto Portugues de Oncologia do Porto Porto Portugal

Istanbul Medipol University Istanbul Turkey

j Faculty of Pharmacy University of Bratislava Slovakia

j ULB Faculty of Medicine Brussels Belgium

Johannes Gutenberg Universitat Mainz Mainz Germany

k Fundacion para la Gestion de la Investigacion Biomedica de Cadiz Cadiz Spain

k The Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics Cyprus

l Polygene AG Zürich Switzerland

l University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark

Lorraine University CNRS Biopole UL Lorraine France

m CNRS University of Perpignan Perpignan France

m Gebze Technical University Gebze Turkey

Medical University of Vienna Department of Cell and Developmental Biology Vienna Austria

Norwegian University of Science and Technology Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine Faculty of Medicine Norwegian Trondheim Norway

o Institute of Molecular Biology Mainz Germany

o University of Dundee Centre for Gene Regulation and Expression School of Life Sciences Dundee United Kingdom

p Universite Libre de Bruxelles Gosselies Belgium

p University of Thessaly Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology Thessaly Greece

q Biotalentum Ltd Gödöllö Hungary

q Institut de Genomique Fonctionnelle Montpellier France

r Institut de Biologie Paris Seine Pierre et Marie Curie University Institut de Biologie Paris Paris France

r University College Cork Biochemistry Department Cork Ireland

s German Cancer Research Center Heidelberg Germany

s Trinity College Dublin Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute Dublin Ireland

t Technion Israel institute of technology Haifa Israel

t University of Kassel Kassel Germany

u Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv Israel

u Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel

v Center for Genomic Science of Milano Italy

v Institute for Advanced Bioscience Grenoble France

w Fundacion IMDEA Alimentacion Ctra de Canto Blanco Madrid Spain

w University of Latvia Riga Latvia

x Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute Barcelona Spain

x Riga Stradins University A Kirhensteins Institute of Microbiology Riga Latvia

y National Blood Transfusion Service St Luke's Hospital Malta

y University of Edinburgh MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine Edinburgh United Kingdom

z The Francis Crick Institute London United Kingdom

z University of Malta Centre for Molecular Medicine and Biobanking Biomedical sciences Malta

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