The island-like distribution of subalpine habitats across mountain ranges can trigger the parallel evolution of locally adapted ecotypes. Such naturally replicated scenarios allow testing hypotheses on how elevational differentiation structures genetic diversity within species. Nevertheless, the parallel colonization of subalpine habitats across different mountain ranges has only rarely been documented with molecular data. We chose Primula elatior (Primulaceae), naturally spanning entire elevation range in multiple mountain regions of central Europe, to test for the origin of its scattered subalpine populations. Nuclear microsatellite variation revealed three genetic groups corresponding with the distinct study regions. We found that genetic differentiation between foothill and subalpine populations within each region was relatively low, suggesting that the colonization of subalpine habitats occurred independently within each mountain range. Furthermore, the strongest differentiation was usually found between the subalpine populations suggesting that mountain ridges may act as migration barriers that can reduce gene flow more strongly than elevational differences between foothill and subalpine populations. Finally, we found that subalpine colonization did not result in a loss of genetic diversity relative to foothill populations in agreement with the high migration rates that we document here between the subalpine and the foothill populations. In summary, our study shows subalpine Primula elatior populations are genetically diverse and distinct results of parallel colonization events from multiple foothill gene pools.

Department of Botany Faculty of Science Charles University Benátská 2 CZ 128 00 Prague Czech Republic

Department of Botany University of Innsbruck Sternwartestraße 15 AT 6020 Innsbruck Austria

Institute of Botany The Czech Academy of Sciences Zámek 1 CZ 252 43 Průhonice Czech Republic

Natural History Museum University of Oslo Sars' gate 1 NO 0562 Oslo Norway

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Parallel Alpine Differentiation in Arabidopsis arenosa