BACKGROUND: Previous studies of relations between parenting self-concepts, parental adjustment and child temperament have been ambiguous regarding the direction of influence; and have rarely followed families from pregnancy through the first year of life. The current study examines change and stability in maternal depressive symptoms, parenting competences and child temperament through the perinatal period until nine months postpartum. METHODS: Czech mothers (N = 282) participated at three time points: the third trimester of pregnancy (Time 1), six weeks (Time 2) and nine months postpartum (Time 3). Questionnaire data concerned depressive symptoms (T1, T2, T3), maternal parenting self-esteem (T1, T2) and sense of competence (T3), and child temperament (T2, T3). A path model was used to examine concurrent and longitudinal relations between these variables. RESULTS: The analyses indicated longitudinal stability of all constructs, as well as concurrent relations between them. Longitudinal relations supported child-to-parent, rather than parent-to-child, effects: child difficult temperament predicted decreases in perceived maternal parenting competences, but maternal variables did not predict change in infant temperament. In addition, we observed weak mutual relations between maternal depression levels and parenting competences, such that maternal depression diminished perceived parenting competences that in turn contributed to higher levels of depression. CONCLUSION: Mothers' confidence in their ability to parent is influenced by their experience with a difficult infant and by their depressive symptoms during the child's first year of life. Depressive symptoms are, in turn, aggravated by mothers' low perceived competences in the parenting role.

Department of Psychology Bowdoin College Brunswick Maine United States of America

Department of Psychology Faculty of Arts Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Psychology Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Grace SL, Evindar A, Stewart DE. The effect of postpartum depression on child cognitive development and behavior: a review and critical analysis of the literature. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2003;6(4):263–74. Epub 2003/11/25. 10.1007/s00737-003-0024-6 . PubMed DOI

Pauli-Pott U, Mertesacker B, Beckmann D. Predicting the development of infant emotionality from maternal characteristics. Dev Psychopathol. 2004;16(1):19–42. Epub 2004/04/30. . PubMed

Austin MP, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Leader L, Saint K, Parker G. Maternal trait anxiety, depression and life event stress in pregnancy: relationships with infant temperament. Early Hum Dev. 2005;81(2):183–90. Epub 2005/03/08. 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2004.07.001 . PubMed DOI

Gross D, Conrad B, Fogg L, Wothke W. A longitudinal model of maternal self-efficacy, depression, and difficult temperament during toddlerhood. Res Nurs Health. 1994;17(3):207–15. Epub 1994/06/01. . PubMed

Erickson NL, Gartstein MA, Dotson JAW. Review of Prenatal Maternal Mental Health and the Development of Infant Temperament. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2017;46(4):588–600. Epub 2017/06/03. 10.1016/j.jogn.2017.03.008 . PubMed DOI

Woolhouse H, Gartland D, Mensah F, Giallo R, Brown S. Maternal depression from pregnancy to 4 years postpartum and emotional/behavioural difficulties in children: results from a prospective pregnancy cohort study. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2016;19(1):141–51. Epub 2015/08/15. 10.1007/s00737-015-0562-8 . PubMed DOI

Skipstein A, Janson H, Kjeldsen A, Nilsen W, Mathiesen KS. Trajectories of maternal symptoms of depression and anxiety over 13 years: the influence of stress, social support, and maternal temperament. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:1120 Epub 2012/12/29. 10.1186/1471-2458-12-1120 . PubMed DOI PMC

Eastwood JG, Jalaludin BB, Kemp LA, Phung HN, Barnett BE. Relationship of postnatal depressive symptoms to infant temperament, maternal expectations, social support and other potential risk factors: findings from a large Australian cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2012;12:148 Epub 2012/12/14. 10.1186/1471-2393-12-148 . PubMed DOI PMC

Britton JR. Infant temperament and maternal anxiety and depressed mood in the early postpartum period. Women Health. 2011;51(1):55–71. Epub 2011/03/11. 10.1080/03630242.2011.540741 . PubMed DOI

Cutrona CE, Troutman BR. Social support, infant temperament, and parenting self-efficacy: a mediational model of postpartum depression. Child Dev. 1986;57(6):1507–18. Epub 1986/12/01. . PubMed

Bell RQ. A reinterpretation of the direction of effects in studies of socialization. Psychological review. 1968;75(2):81 PubMed

Cornish AM, McMahon CA, Ungerer JA, Barnett B, Kowalenko N, Tennant C. Maternal depression and the experience of parenting in the second postnatal year. Journal of Reproductive & Infant Psychology. 2006;24(2):121–32. 10.1080/02646830600644021 DOI

Jover M, Colomer J, Carot JM, Larsson C, Bobes MT, Ivorra JL, et al. Maternal anxiety following delivery, early infant temperament and mother’s confidence in caregiving. Span J Psychol. 2014;17:E95 Epub 2014/01/01. 10.1017/sjp.2014.87 . PubMed DOI

Field T. Prenatal depression effects on early development: a review. Infant Behav Dev. 2011;34(1):1–14. Epub 2010/10/26. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.09.008 . PubMed DOI

Cornish AM, McMahon CA, Ungerer JA, Barnett B, Kowalenko N, Tennant C. Postnatal depression and infant cognitive and motor development in the second postnatal year: The impact of depression chronicity and infant gender. Infant Behavior & Development. 2005;28(4):407–17. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2005.03.004 2006-05510-002. DOI

Bauer A, Pawlby S, Plant DT, King D, Pariante CM, Knapp M. Perinatal depression and child development: exploring the economic consequences from a South London cohort. Psychol Med. 2015;45(1):51–61. Epub 2014/07/30. 10.1017/S0033291714001044 . PubMed DOI PMC

Beck CT. A meta-analysis of the relationship between postpartum depression and infant temperament. Nurs Res. 1996;45(4):225–30. Epub 1996/07/01. . PubMed

Bridgett DJ, Gartstein MA, Putnam SP, McKay T, Iddins E, Robertson C, et al. Maternal and contextual influences and the effect of temperament development during infancy on parenting in toddlerhood. Infant Behav Dev. 2009;32(1):103–16. Epub 2008/12/30. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.10.007 . PubMed DOI

Feldman R, Granat A, Pariente C, Kanety H, Kuint J, Gilboa-Schechtman E. Maternal depression and anxiety across the postpartum year and infant social engagement, fear regulation, and stress reactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48(9):919–27. Epub 2009/07/25. 10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181b21651 . PubMed DOI

Kerstis B, Engstrom G, Edlund B, Aarts C. Association between mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms, sense of coherence and perception of their child’s temperament in early parenthood in Sweden. Scand J Public Health. 2013;41(3):233–9. Epub 2013/01/26. 10.1177/1403494812472006 . PubMed DOI

Chong SC, Broekman BF, Qiu A, Aris IM, Chan YH, Rifkin-Graboi A, et al. Anxiety and Depression during Pregnancy and Temperament in Early Infancy: Findings from a Multi-Ethnic, Asian, Prospective Birth Cohort Study. Infant Ment Health J. 2016;37(5):584–98. Epub 2016/08/23. 10.1002/imhj.21582 . PubMed DOI

Bhat A, Chowdayya R, Selvam S, Khan A, Kolts R, Srinivasan K. Maternal prenatal psychological distress and temperament in 1–4 month old infants—A study in a non-western population. Infant Behav Dev. 2015;39:35–41. Epub 2015/03/15. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.12.002 . PubMed DOI

Misri S, Reebye P, Milis L, Shah S. The impact of treatment intervention on parenting stress in postpartum depressed mothers: a prospective study. American journal of orthopsychiatry. 2006;76(1):115–9. 10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.115 PubMed DOI

Davis EP, Glynn LM, Schetter CD, Hobel C, Chicz-Demet A, Sandman CA. Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and cortisol influences infant temperament. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(6):737–46. Epub 2007/05/22. 10.1097/chi.0b013e318047b775 . PubMed DOI

Hummel AC, Kiel EJ. Maternal depressive symptoms, maternal behavior, and toddler internalizing outcomes: a moderated mediation model. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2015;46(1):21–33. Epub 2014/02/21. 10.1007/s10578-014-0448-4 . PubMed DOI PMC

Bagner DM, Pettit JW, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR. Effect of Maternal Depression on Child Behavior: A Sensitive Period? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2010;49(7):699–707. 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.03.012 PubMed DOI PMC

Rouse MH, Goodman SH. Perinatal depression influences on infant negative affectivity: timing, severity, and co-morbid anxiety. Infant Behav Dev. 2014;37(4):739–51. Epub 2014/12/03. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.09.001 . PubMed DOI PMC

Lusby CM, Goodman SH, Bell MA, Newport DJ. Electroencephalogram patterns in infants of depressed mothers. Developmental psychobiology. 2014;56(3):459–73. 10.1002/dev.21112 PubMed DOI

Fox NA, Henderson HA, Rubin KH, Calkins SD, Schmidt LA. Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child development. 2001;72(1):1–21. PubMed

Norcross PL, Leerkes EM, Zhou N. Examining pathways linking maternal depressive symptoms in infancy to children’s behavior problems: The role of maternal unresponsiveness and negative behaviors. Infant Behav Dev. 2017;49:238–47. Epub 2017/10/11. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.09.009 . PubMed DOI PMC

Gartstein MA, Bridgett DJ, Dishion TJ, Kaufman NK. Depressed Mood and Maternal Report of Child Behavior Problems: Another Look at the Depression-Distortion Hypothesis. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2009;30(2):149–60. Epub 2010/02/18. 10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.001 . PubMed DOI PMC

Koutra K, Roumeliotaki T, Kyriklaki A, Kampouri M, Sarri K, Vassilaki M, et al. Maternal depression and personality traits in association with child neuropsychological and behavioral development in preschool years: Mother-child cohort (Rhea Study) in Crete, Greece. J Affect Disord. 2017;217:89–98. Epub 2017/04/11. 10.1016/j.jad.2017.04.002 . PubMed DOI

McMahon C, Barnett B, Kowalenko N, Tennant C, Don N. Postnatal depression, anxiety and unsettled infant behaviour. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2001;35(5):581–8. Epub 2001/09/12. 10.1080/0004867010060505 . PubMed DOI

O’Connor TG, Heron J, Golding J, Glover V. Maternal antenatal anxiety and behavioural/emotional problems in children: a test of a programming hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines. 2003;44(7):1025–36. 10.1111/1469-7610.00187 PubMed DOI

Van den Bergh BR, Mulder EJ, Mennes M, Glover V. Antenatal maternal anxiety and stress and the neurobehavioural development of the fetus and child: links and possible mechanisms. A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2005;29(2):237–58. PubMed

Braithwaite EC, Ramchandani PG, O’Connor TG, van Ijzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Glover V, et al. No moderating effect of 5-HTTLPR on associations between antenatal anxiety and infant behavior. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;52(5):519–26. Epub 2013/04/30. 10.1016/j.jaac.2013.02.010 . PubMed DOI PMC

Hanington L, Ramchandani P, Stein A. Parental depression and child temperament: assessing child to parent effects in a longitudinal population study. Infant Behav Dev. 2010;33(1):88–95. Epub 2010/01/09. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.11.004 . PubMed DOI PMC

Allmann AE, Kopala-Sibley DC, Klein DN. Preschoolers’ Psychopathology and Temperament Predict Mothers’ Later Mood Disorders. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2016;44(3):421–32. Epub 2015/07/30. 10.1007/s10802-015-0058-z . PubMed DOI PMC

Forbes EE, Shaw DS, Silk JS, Feng X, Cohn JF, Fox NA, et al. Children’s affect expression and frontal EEG asymmetry: transactional associations with mothers’ depressive symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2008;36(2):207–21. Epub 2007/09/14. 10.1007/s10802-007-9171-y . PubMed DOI PMC

Gray PH, Edwards DM, O'Callaghan MJ, Cuskelly M, Gibbons K. Parenting stress in mothers of very preterm infants—influence of development, temperament and maternal depression. Early Hum Dev. 2013;89(9):625–9. Epub 2013/05/15. 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.04.005 . PubMed DOI

Edhborg M, Seimyr L, Lundh W, Widström AM. Fussy child—difficult parenthood? Comparisons between families with a ‘depressed’ mother and non-depressed mother 2 months postpartum. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. 2000;18(3):225–38. 10.1080/713683036 DOI

Rode JL, Kiel EJ. The mediated effects of maternal depression and infant temperament on maternal role. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2016;19(1):133–40. Epub 2015/05/23. 10.1007/s00737-015-0540-1 . PubMed DOI

Coleman PK, Karraker KH. Maternal self‐efficacy beliefs, competence in parenting, and toddlers’ behavior and developmental status. Infant Mental Health Journal. 2003;24(2):126–48.

Verhage ML, Oosterman M, Schuengel C. Parenting self-efficacy predicts perceptions of infant negative temperament characteristics, not vice versa. Journal of Family Psychology. 2013;27(5):844 10.1037/a0034263 PubMed DOI

Porter CL, Hsu HC. First-time mothers’ perceptions of efficacy during the transition to motherhood: links to infant temperament. J Fam Psychol. 2003;17(1):54–64. Epub 2003/04/02. . PubMed

Melchior M, Chastang JF, de Lauzon B, Galera C, Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, Larroque B, et al. Maternal depression, socioeconomic position, and temperament in early childhood: the EDEN Mother-Child Cohort. J Affect Disord. 2012;137(1–3):165–9. Epub 2011/11/29. 10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.018 . PubMed DOI

Lin Y, Xu J, Huang J, Jia Y, Zhang J, Yan C, et al. Effects of prenatal and postnatal maternal emotional stress on toddlers’ cognitive and temperamental development. J Affect Disord. 2017;207:9–17. Epub 2016/09/26. 10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.010 . PubMed DOI

Cox J, Holden J. Perinatal mental health: A guide to the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS): Royal College of Psychiatrists; 2003.

Shea E, Tronick E . The maternal self-report inventory: A research and clinical instrument for assessing maternal self-esteem. Theory and research in behavioral pediatrics. 1988;4:101–39.

Ohan JL, Leung DW, Johnston C. The Parenting Sense of Competence scale: Evidence of a stable factor structure and validity. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement. 2000;32(4):251.

Bates JE, Freeland CAB, Lounsbury ML. Measurement of infant difficultness. Child development. 1979:794–803. PubMed

Breedlove G, Fryzelka D. Depression screening during pregnancy. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health. 2011;56(1):18–25. PubMed

Farrow C, Blissett J. The development of maternal self‐esteem. Infant mental health journal. 2007;28(5):517–35. 10.1002/imhj.20151 PubMed DOI

Rosseel Y. Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more. Version 0.5–12 (BETA). Ghent, Belgium: Ghent University; 2012.

Rothbart MK. Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child development. 1981:569–78.

Rothbart MK, Bates JE. Temperament In: Damon W, Lerner RM, Eisenberg N, editors. Handbook of child psychology, social, emotional, and personality development. 3 New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2006. p. 99–166.

Thomason E, Volling BL, Flynn HA, McDonough SC, Marcus SM, Lopez JF, et al. Parenting stress and depressive symptoms in postpartum mothers: bidirectional or unidirectional effects? Infant Behav Dev. 2014;37(3):406–15. Epub 2014/06/24. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.05.009 . PubMed DOI PMC

Dennis CL, Dowswell T. Psychosocial and psychological interventions for preventing postpartum depression. The Cochrane Library; 2013. PubMed PMC

Letourneau NL, Dennis CL, Cosic N, Linder J. The effect of perinatal depression treatment for mothers on parenting and child development: A systematic review. Depress Anxiety. 2017;34(10):928–66. Epub 2017/09/30. 10.1002/da.22687 . PubMed DOI

van der Waerden J, Galera C, Larroque B, Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, Sutter-Dallay AL, Melchior M, et al. Maternal Depression Trajectories and Children’s Behavior at Age 5 Years. J Pediatr. 2015;166(6):1440–8.e1. Epub 2015/04/14. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.03.002 . PubMed DOI

Gartstein MA, Rothbart MK. Studying infant temperament via the revised infant behavior questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development. 2003;26(1):64–86.

Fiala A, Švancara J, Klánová J, Kašpárek T. Sociodemographic and delivery risk factors for developing postpartum depression in a sample of 3233 mothers from the Czech ELSPAC study. BMC psychiatry. 2017;17(1):104 10.1186/s12888-017-1261-y PubMed DOI PMC

Razurel C, Kaiser B, Antonietti JP, Epiney M, Sellenet C. Relationship between perceived perinatal stress and depressive symptoms, anxiety, and parental self-efficacy in primiparous mothers and the role of social support. Women Health. 2017;57(2):154–72. Epub 2016/02/26. 10.1080/03630242.2016.1157125 . PubMed DOI

Gao LL, Sun K, Chan SW. Social support and parenting self-efficacy among Chinese women in the perinatal period. Midwifery. 2014;30(5):532–8. Epub 2013/07/19. 10.1016/j.midw.2013.06.007 . PubMed DOI

Leahy-Warren P, McCarthy G, Corcoran P. First-time mothers: social support, maternal parental self-efficacy and postnatal depression. J Clin Nurs. 2012;21(3–4):388–97. Epub 2011/03/26. 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2011.03701.x . PubMed DOI

Keller H, Otto H. The cultural socialization of emotion regulation during infancy. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 2009;40(6):996–1011.

Putnam SP, Gartstein MA. Aggregate temperament scores from multiple countries: Associations with aggregate personality traits, cultural dimensions, and allelic frequency. Journal of Research in Personality. 2017;67:157–70.

Super CM, Harkness S. The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. International journal of behavioral development. 1986;9(4):545–69.

Associations Between Mode of Birth and Neuropsychological Development in Children Aged 4 Years: Results from a Birth Cohort Study