This work focuses on the analysis of structural and functional properties of calcium phosphate (CaP) incorporated bacterial cellulose (BC)-polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) based hydrogel scaffolds referred to as "CaP/BC-PVP". CaP is incorporated in the scaffolds in the form of hydroxyapatite (HA) and β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) in different concentrations (β-TCP: HA (w/w) = 20:80, 40:60, and 50:50). The scaffolds were characterized on the basis of porosity, thermal, biodegradation, mechanical, and cell viability/cytocompatibility properties. The structural properties of all the hydrogel scaffolds show significant porosity. The biodegradation of "CaP/BC-PVP" scaffold was evaluated following hydrolytic degradation. Weight loss profile, pH change, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) study confirm the significant degradability of the scaffolds. It is observed that a 50:50_CaP/BC-PVP scaffold has the highest degree of degradation. On the other hand, the compressive strengths of CaP/BC-PVP hydrogel scaffolds are found between 0.21 to 0.31 MPa, which is comparable with the human trabecular bone. The cell viability study is performed with a human osteosarcoma Saos-2 cell line, where significant cell viability is observed in all the hydrogel scaffolds. This indicated their ability to facilitate cell growth and cell proliferation. Considering all these substantial properties, CaP/BC-PVP hydrogel scaffolds can be suggested for detailed investigation in the context of bone regeneration application.

Centre of Polymer Systems University Institute Tomas Bata University in Zlin 760 01 Zlín Czech Republic

Institute of Experimental Morphology Pathology and Anthropology with Museum Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 1113 Sofia Bulgaria

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Iaquinta M.R., Mazzoni E., Manfrini M., D’Agostino A., Trevisiol L., Nocini R., Trombelli L., Barbanti-Brodano G., Martini F., Tognon M. Innovative Biomaterials for Bone Regrowth. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019;20:618. doi: 10.3390/ijms20030618. PubMed DOI PMC

Chauvin-Kimoff L., Allard-Dansereau C., Colbourne M. The medical assessment of fractures in suspected child maltreatment: Infants and young children with skeletal injury. Paediatr. Child Health. 2018;23:156–160. doi: 10.1093/pch/pxx131. PubMed DOI PMC

Cohen H., Kugel C., May H., Medlej B., Stein D., Slon V., Hershkovitz I., Brosh T. The impact velocity and bone fracture pattern: Forensic perspective. Forensic Sci. Int. 2016;266:54–62. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.04.035. PubMed DOI

Rabie A.B., Wong R.W., Hagg U. Composite autogenous bone and demineralized bone matrices used to repair defects in the parietal bone of rabbits. Br. J. Oral. Maxillofac. Surg. 2000;38:565–570. doi: 10.1054/bjom.2000.0464. PubMed DOI

Habibovic P. Strategic Directions in Osteoinduction and Biomimetics. Tissue Eng. Part A. 2017;23:1295–1296. doi: 10.1089/ten.tea.2017.0430. PubMed DOI

Hernlund E., Svedbom A., Ivergard M., Compston J., Cooper C., Stenmark J., McCloskey E.V., Jonsson B., Kanis J.A. Osteoporosis in the European Union: Medical management, epidemiology and economic burden. A report prepared in collaboration with the International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF) and the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industry Associations (EFPIA) Arch. Osteoporos. 2013;8:136. doi: 10.1007/s11657-013-0136-1. PubMed DOI PMC

Oral A., Kucukdeveci A.A., Varela E., Ilieva E.M., Valero R., Berteanu M., Christodoulou N. Osteoporosis. The role of physical and rehabilitation medicine physicians. The European perspective based on the best evidence. A paper by the UEMS-PRM Section Professional Practice Committee. Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med. 2013;49:565–577. PubMed

Tian L., Tang N., Ngai T., Wu C., Ruan Y., Huang L., Qin L. Hybrid fracture fixation systems developed for orthopaedic applications: A general review. J. Orthop. Transl. 2018;16:1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jot.2018.06.006. PubMed DOI PMC

Siallagan S.F., Silalahi M., Boediono A., Estuningsih S., Noviana D. A Wearable Iron-Based Implant as an Intramedullary Nail in Tibial Shaft Fracture of Sheep. Int. J. Biomater. 2019;2019:1–10. doi: 10.1155/2019/8798351. PubMed DOI PMC

Christensen F.B., Dalstra M., Sejling F., Overgaard S., Bunger C. Titanium-alloy enhances bone-pedicle screw fixation: Mechanical and histomorphometrical results of titanium-alloy versus stainless steel. Eur. Spine J. 2000;9:97–103. doi: 10.1007/s005860050218. PubMed DOI PMC

Sheikh Z., Najeeb S., Khurshid Z., Verma V., Rashid H., Glogauer M. Biodegradable Materials for Bone Repair and Tissue Engineering Applications. Materials. 2015;8:5744–5794. doi: 10.3390/ma8095273. PubMed DOI PMC

Basu P., Saha N., Saha P. Inorganic calcium filled bacterial cellulose based hydrogel scaffold: Novel biomaterial for bone tissue regeneration. Int. J. Polym. Mater. 2019;68:134–144. doi: 10.1080/00914037.2018.1525733. DOI

Ratner B.D. Biomaterials Science: An Introduction to Materials in Medicine. Academic Press; Cambridge, MA, USA: 2004.

Liu X., Miller II A.L., Park S., George M.N., Waletzki B.E., Xu H., Terzic A., Lu L. Two-Dimensional Black Phosphorus and Graphene Oxide Nanosheets Synergistically Enhance Cell Proliferation and Osteogenesis on 3D Printed Scaffolds. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2019;11:23558–23572. doi: 10.1021/acsami.9b04121. PubMed DOI PMC

Kankala R.K., Xu X.-M., Liu C.-G., Chen A.-Z., Wang S.-B. 3D-Printing of Microfibrous Porous Scaffolds Based on Hybrid Approaches for Bone Tissue Engineering. Polymers. 2018;10:807. doi: 10.3390/polym10070807. PubMed DOI PMC

Winkler T., Sass F.A., Duda G.N., Schmidt-Bleek K. A review of biomaterials in bone defect healing, remaining shortcomings and future opportunities for bone tissue engineering: The unsolved challenge. Bone Jt. Res. 2018;7:232–243. doi: 10.1302/2046-3758.73.BJR-2017-0270.R1. PubMed DOI PMC

Harris J.J., Lu S., Gabriele P. Commercial challenges in developing biomaterials for medical device development. Polym. Int. 2018;67:969–974. doi: 10.1002/pi.5590. DOI

Jeon O.H., Panicker L.M., Lu Q., Chae J.J., Feldman R.A., Elisseef J.H. Human iPSC-derived osteoblasts and osteoclasts together promote bone regeneration in 3D biomaterials. Sci. Rep. 2016;6:26761. doi: 10.1038/srep26761. PubMed DOI PMC

Puppi D., Migone C., Grassi L., Pirosa A., Maisetta G., Batoni G., Chiellini F. Integrated three-dimensional fiber/hydrogel biphasic scaffolds for periodontal bone tissue engineering. Polym. Int. 2016;65:631–640. doi: 10.1002/pi.5101. DOI

Ardeshirylajimi A., Dinarvand P., Seyedjafari E., Langroudi L., Adegani F.J., Soleimani M. Enhanced reconstruction of rat calvarial defects achieved by plasma-treated electrospun scaffolds and induced pluripotent stem cells. Cell Tissue Res. 2013;354:849–860. doi: 10.1007/s00441-013-1693-8. PubMed DOI

Jin G.Z., Kim T.H., Kim J.H., Won J.E., Yoo S.Y., Choi S.J., Hyun J.K., Kim H.W. Bone tissue engineering of induced pluripotent stem cells cultured with macrochanneled polymer scaffold. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A. 2013;101:1283–1291. doi: 10.1002/jbm.a.34425. PubMed DOI

Levi B., Hyun J.S., Montoro D.T., Lo D.D., Chan C.K., Hu S., Sun N., Lee M., Grova M., Connolly A.J., et al. In vivo directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells for skeletal regeneration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012;109:20379–20384. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1218052109. PubMed DOI PMC

Duan X., Tu Q., Zhang J., Ye J., Sommer C., Mostoslavsky G., Kaplan D., Yang P., Chen J. Application of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells in periodontal tissue regeneration. J. Cell. Physiol. 2011;226:150–157. doi: 10.1002/jcp.22316. PubMed DOI PMC

Ko J.Y., Park S., Im G.I. Osteogenesis from human induced pluripotent stem cells: An in vitro and in vivo comparison with mesenchymal stem cells. Stem Cells Dev. 2014;23:1788–1797. doi: 10.1089/scd.2014.0043. PubMed DOI

Ye J.H., Xu Y.J., Gao J., Yan S.G., Zhao J., Tu Q., Zhang J., Duan X.J., Sommer C.A., Mostoslavsky G., et al. Critical-size calvarial bone defects healing in a mouse model with silk scaffolds and SATB2-modified iPSCs. Biomaterials. 2011;32:5065–5076. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.03.053. PubMed DOI PMC

Cheng D., Zhang X., Wang S., Liu L. Effect on Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Random Copolymer Polypropylene/Microcrystalline Cellulose Composites Using T-ZnOw as an Additive. Adv. Polym. Technol. 2019;2019:1–16. doi: 10.1155/2019/4862124. DOI

Schröpfer S.B., Bottene M.K., Bianchin L., Robinson L.C., de Lima V., Jahno V.D., da Silva Barud H., Ribeiro S.J. Biodegradation evaluation of bacterial cellulose, vegetable cellulose and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) in soil. Polímeros. 2015;25:154–160. doi: 10.1590/0104-1428.1712. DOI

Qi G.X., Luo M.T., Huang C., Guo H.J., Chen X.F., Xiong L., Wang B., Lin X.Q., Peng F., Chen X.D. Comparison of bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus on bagasse acid and enzymatic hydrolysates. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017;134:45066. doi: 10.1002/app.45066. DOI

Torgbo S., Sukyaia P. Bacterial cellulose-based scaffold materials for bone tissue engineering. Appl. Mater. Today. 2018;11:34–49. doi: 10.1016/j.apmt.2018.01.004. DOI

Pirsa S., Shamusi T., Kia E.M. Smart films based on bacterial cellulose nanofibers modified by conductive polypyrrole and zinc oxide nanoparticles. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018;135:46617. doi: 10.1002/app.46617. DOI

Basu P., Saha N., Alexandrova R., Andonova-Lilova B., Georgieva M., Miloshev G., Saha P. Biocompatibility and Biological Efficiency of Inorganic Calcium Filled Bacterial Cellulose Based Hydrogel Scaffolds for Bone Bioengineering. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018;19:3980. doi: 10.3390/ijms19123980. PubMed DOI PMC

Fan X., Zhang T., Zhao Z., Ren H., Zhang Q., Yan Y., Lv G. Preparation and characterization of bacterial cellulose microfiber/goat bone apatite composites for bone repair. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2013;129:595–603. doi: 10.1002/app.38702. DOI

Wang Y., Xue Y., Wang J., Zhu Y., Zhu Y., Zhang X., Liao J., Li X., Wu X., Qin Y.-X., et al. A Composite Hydrogel with High Mechanical Strength, Fluorescence, and Degradable Behavior for Bone Tissue Engineering. Polymers. 2019;11:1112. doi: 10.3390/polym11071112. PubMed DOI PMC

Ozcelik B., Palmer J., Ladewig K., Facal Marina P., Stevens G.W., Abberton K., Morrison W.A., Blencowe A., Qiao G.G. Biocompatible Porous Polyester-Ether Hydrogel Scaffolds with Cross-Linker Mediated Biodegradation and Mechanical Properties for Tissue Augmentation. Polymers. 2018;10:179. doi: 10.3390/polym10020179. PubMed DOI PMC

De Mori A., Peña Fernández M., Blunn G., Tozzi G., Roldo M. 3D Printing and Electrospinning of Composite Hydrogels for Cartilage and Bone Tissue Engineering. Polymers. 2018;10:285. doi: 10.3390/polym10030285. PubMed DOI PMC

Saha N., Shah R., Gupta P., Mandal B.B., Alexandrova R., Sikiric M.D., Saha P. PVP-CMC hydrogel: An excellent bioinspired and biocompatible scaffold for osseointegration. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 2019;95:440–449. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2018.04.050. PubMed DOI

Kocen R., Gasik M., Gantar A., Novak S. Viscoelastic behaviour of hydrogel-based composites for tissue engineering under mechanical load. Biomed. Mater. 2017;12:025004. doi: 10.1088/1748-605X/aa5b00. PubMed DOI

Racine L., Texier I., Auzély-Velty R. Chitosan-based hydrogels: Recent design concepts to tailor properties and functions. Polym. Int. 2017;66:981–998. doi: 10.1002/pi.5331. DOI

Lyu S.P., Untereker D. Degradability of Polymers for Implantable Biomedical Devices. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2009;10:4033–4065. doi: 10.3390/ijms10094033. PubMed DOI PMC

Lodhi B.A., Hussain M.A., Sher M., Haseeb M.T., Ashraf M.U., Hussain S.Z., Hussain I., Bukhari S.N.A. Polysaccharide-Based Superporous, Superabsorbent, and Stimuli Responsive Hydrogel from Sweet Basil: A Novel Material for Sustained Drug Release. Adv. Polym. Technol. 2019;2019:1–11. doi: 10.1155/2019/9583516. DOI

Janoušková O. Synthetic Polymer Scaffolds for Soft Tissue Engineering. Physiother. Res. 2018;67:S3335–S3348. doi: 10.33549/physiolres.933983. PubMed DOI

Goudouri O.M., Balasubramanian P., Boccaccini A.R. Characterizing the degradation behavior of bioceramic scaffolds. In: Tomlins P., editor. Characterisation and Design of Tissue Scaffolds. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2016. pp. 127–147. (Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials). Chapter 6.

O’Brien F.J. Biomaterials & scaffolds for tissue engineering. Mater. Today. 2011;14:88–95.

Kumar P.T.S., Srinivasan S., Lakshmanan V.K., Tamura H., Nair S.V., Jayakumar R. β-Chitin hydrogel/nano hydroxyapatite composite scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 2011;85:584–591. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.03.018. DOI

Will J., Detsch R., Boccaccini A.R. Characterization of Biomaterials. In: Bandyopadhyay A., Bose S., editors. Structural and Biological Characterization of Scaffolds. Academic Press; Cambridge, MA, USA: 2013. pp. 299–310. Chapter 7.1.

Roy N., Saha N., Kitano T., Saha P. Biodegradation of PVP–CMC hydrogel film: A useful food packaging material. Carbohydr. Polym. 2012;89:346–353. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.03.008. PubMed DOI

Shah R., Vyroubal R., Fei H., Saha N., Kitano T., Saha P. Preparation of bacterial cellulose based hydrogels and their viscoelastic behavior. AIP Conf. Proc. 2015;1662:1–7.

LeGeros R.Z., Lin S., Rohanizadeh R., Mijares D., LeGeros J.P. Biophasic calcium phosphate bioceramics: Preparation, properties and application. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2003;14:201–209. doi: 10.1023/A:1022872421333. PubMed DOI

Akaraonye E., Filip J., Safarikova M., Salih V., Keshavarz T., Knowles J.C., Roy I. Composite scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering based on natural polymers of bacterial origin, thermoplastic poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and micro-fibrillated bacterial cellulose. Polym. Int. 2016;65:780–791. doi: 10.1002/pi.5103. DOI

Basu P., Saha N., Saha P. Swelling and rheological study of calcium phosphate filled bacterial cellulose based hydrogel scaffold. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019;136:48522. doi: 10.1002/app.48522. DOI

Lin F., Zheng R., Chen J., Su W., Dong B., Lin C., Huang B., Lu B. Microfibrillated cellulose enhancement to mechanical and conductive properties of biocompatible hydrogels. Carbohydr. Polym. 2019;205:244–254. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.10.037. PubMed DOI

Kumar A., Zhang Y., Terracciano A., Zhao X., Su T.-L., Kalyon D.M., Katebifar S., Kumbar S.G., Yu X. Load-bearing biodegradable polycaprolactone-poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)- beta tri-calcium phosphate scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration. Polym. Adv. Technol. 2019;30:1189–1197. doi: 10.1002/pat.4551. PubMed DOI PMC

Porter J.R., Henson A., Popat K.C. Biodegradable poly (epsilon-caprolactone) nanowires for bone tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials. 2009;30:780–788. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.10.022. PubMed DOI

Wu L., Ding J. In vitro degradation of three-dimensional porous poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) scaffolds for tissue engineering. Biomaterials. 2004;25:5821–5830. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.01.038. PubMed DOI

Bouhadir K.H., Lee K.Y., Alsberg E., Damm K.L., Anderson K.W., Mooney D.J. Degradation of partially oxidized alginate and its potential application for tissue engineering. Biotechnol. Prog. 2001;17:945–950. doi: 10.1021/bp010070p. PubMed DOI

Gupta N.V., Shivakumar H.G. Investigation of swelling and mechanical properties of pH-sensitive superporous hydrogel composite. Iran. J. Pharm. Res. 2012;11:481–493. PubMed PMC

Maswal M., Chat O.A., Dar A.A. Rheological characterization of multi component hydrogel based on carboxymethyl cellulose: Insight into its encapsulation capacity and release kinetics towards ibuprofen. Colloid Polym. Sci. 2015;293:1723–1735. doi: 10.1007/s00396-015-3545-4. DOI

Köse G.T., Kenar H., Hasirci N., Hasirci V. Macroporous poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) matrices for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials. 2003;24:1949–1958. doi: 10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00613-0. PubMed DOI

Mohite B.V., Patil S.V. Physical, structural, mechanical and thermal characterization of bacterial cellulose by G. hansenii NCIM 2529. Carbohydr. Polym. 2014;106:132–141. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.02.012. PubMed DOI

Ferfera-Harrar H., Aouaz N., Dairi N. Environmental-sensitive chitosan-g-polyacrylamide/carboxymethylcellulose superabsorbent composites for wastewater purification I: Synthesis and properties. Polym. Bull. 2016;73:815–840. doi: 10.1007/s00289-015-1521-2. DOI

Sun S., Cao H., Su H., Tan T. Preparation and characterization of novel injectable in situ cross-linked hydrogel. Polym. Bull. 2009;62:699–711. doi: 10.1007/s00289-009-0048-9. DOI

Mao J.S., Zhao L.G., Yin Y.J., Yao K.D. Structure and properties of bilayer chitosan–gelatin scaffolds. Biomaterials. 2003;24:1067–1074. doi: 10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00442-8. PubMed DOI

Sheenoy A.V. Rheology of Filled Polymer Systems. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 1999.

Annabi N., Nichol J.W., Zhong X., Ji C., Koshy S., Khademhosseini A., Dehghani F. Controlling the porosity and microarchitecture of hydrogels for tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. Part B Rev. 2010;16:371–383. doi: 10.1089/ten.teb.2009.0639. PubMed DOI PMC

Pandit V., Pai R.S., Devi K., Suresh S. In vitro-in vivo evaluation of fast-dissolving tablets containing solid dispersion of pioglitazone hydrochloride. J. Adv. Pharm. Technol. Res. 2012;3:160–170. PubMed PMC

Maghraby G.M., Ghanem S.F. Preparation and Evaluation of Rapidly Dissolving Tablets of Raloxifene Hydrochloride by Ternary System Formation. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2016;8:127–136.

Oliveira R.L., Vieira J.G., Barud H.S., Assunção R.M.N., Filho G.R., Ribeiro S.J.L., Messadeqq Y. Synthesis and Characterization of Methylcellulose Produced from Bacterial Cellulose under Heterogeneous Condition. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 2015;26:1861–1870. doi: 10.5935/0103-5053.20150163. DOI

Gabbott P. Principles and Applications of Thermal Analysis. Blackwell Publishing; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2008. p. 464.

Matraszek A., Radominska E. The revised phase diagram of the Ca3(PO4)2–YPO4 system. The temperature and concentration range of solid-solution phase fields. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2014;117:101. doi: 10.1007/s10973-014-3662-1. DOI

Klemm D., Ahrem H., Kramer F., Fried W., Wippermann J., Kinne R.W. Bacterial Nanocellulose Hydrogels Designed as Bioartificial Medical Implants. In: Gama M., Gatenholm P., Klemm D., editors. Bacterial NanoCellulose a Sophisticated Multifunctional Material. CRC Press; Boca Raton, FL, USA: 2012. pp. 175–196. Chapter 9.

Ghassemi T., Shahroodi A., Ebrahimzadeh M.H., Mousavian A., Movaffagh J., Moradi A. Current Concepts in Scaffolding for Bone Tissue Engineering. Arch. Bone Jt. Surg. 2018;6:90–99. PubMed PMC

Gajjar C.R., King M.W. Degradation Process. In: Gajjar C.R., King M.W., editors. Resorbable Fiber-Forming Polymers for Biotextile Applications, Briefs in Materials. Springer; Berlin, Germany: 2014.

Akagi Y., Gosho S., Anraku Y., Sakuma I. Control of Degradation Properties of Polymer Gel; Proceedings of the ECS Meeting Abstract (Abstract MA2018-03 88), Poster Paper Presented at First International Conference on 4D Materials and Systems; Yonezawa, Japan. 26–30 August 2018.

Houmard M., Fu Q., Genet M., Saiz E., Tomsia A.P. On the structural, mechanical, and biodegradation properties of HA/β-TCP robocast scaffolds. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2013;101:1233–1242. doi: 10.1002/jbm.b.32935. PubMed DOI

Sala G. Composite degradation due to fluid absorption. Compos. Part B. 2000;31:357–373. doi: 10.1016/S1359-8368(00)00025-1. DOI

Ratner B.D., Hoffman A.S., Schoen F.J., Lemons J.E. Biomaterials Science: An Introduction to Materials in Medicine. 3rd ed. Academic Press; Cambridge, MA, USA: 2012.

Yacob N., Hashim K. Morphological effect on swelling behaviour of hydrogel. AIP Conf. Proc. 2014;1584:153.

Nie L., Suo J., Zou P., Feng S. Preparation and properties of biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds multiply coated with HA/PLLA nanocomposites for bone tissue engineering applications. J. Nanomater. 2012;2012:1–11. doi: 10.1155/2012/213549. DOI

Kumar A., Sinha J. Chapter 8 Electrochemical Transistors for Applications in Chemical and Biological Sensing. In: Bernards D.A., Owens R.M., Malliaras G.G., editors. Organic Semiconductors in Sensor Applications. Volume 107. Springer; Berlin, Germany: 2008. pp. 245–261. (Springer Series in Materials Science).

Grover C., Shetty N. Evaluation of calcium ion release and change in pH on combining calcium hydroxide with different vehicles. Contemp. Clin. Dent. 2014;5:434–439. doi: 10.4103/0976-237X.142803. PubMed DOI PMC

Feng J., Zhang Q., Tu Z., Tu W., Wan Z., Pan M., Zhang H. Degradation of silicone rubbers with different hardness in various aqueous solutions. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 2014;109:122–128. doi: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2014.07.011. DOI

Bartošová A., Soldán M., Sirotiak M., Blinová L., Michaliková A. Application of Ftir-Atr Spectroscopy for Determination of Glucose in Hydrolysates of Selected Starches. J. Slovak Univ. Technol. 2013;21:116–121. doi: 10.2478/rput-2013-0019. DOI

Fengyan L., Fu H. Effect of Alkaline Degumming on Structure and Properties of Lotus Fibers at Different Growth Period. J. Eng. Fibers Fabr. 2015;10:135–139.

Mróz W., Bombalska A., Budne B., Burdynska S., Jedynski M., Prokopiuk A., Menaszek E., Scisłowska-Czarnecka A., Niedzielska A., Niedzielski K. Comparative study of hydroxyapatite and octacalcium phosphate coatings deposited on metallic implants by PLD method. Appl. Phys. A. 2010;101:713–716. doi: 10.1007/s00339-010-5926-3. DOI

Chen Q.Z., Boccaccini A.R. Bioactive Materials and scaffolds for Tissue Engineering. In: Wnek G.E., Bowlin G.L., editors. Encyclopedia of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering. 2nd ed. CRC Press; Boca Raton, FL, USA: 2008. pp. 142–151.

Deshmukh M., Singh Y., Gunaseelan S., Gao D., Stein S., Sinko P.J. Biodegradable poly (ethylene glycol) hydrogels based on a self-elimination degradation mechanism. Biomaterials. 2010;31:6675–6684. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.05.021. PubMed DOI PMC

Rodel M., Meininger S., Groll J., Gbureck U. Bioceramics as drug delivery systems. In: Thomas S., Balakrishnan P., Sreekala M.S., editors. Fundamental Biomaterials: Ceramics. Woodhead Publishing; Cambridge, UK: 2018. pp. 153–194. (Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials). Chapter 7.

Odelius K., Höglund A., Kumar S., Hakkarainen M., Ghosh A.K., Bhatnagar N., Albertsson A.-C. Porosity and Pore Size Regulate the Degradation Product Profile of Polylactide. Biomacromolecules. 2011;12:1250–1258. doi: 10.1021/bm1015464. PubMed DOI

Chiu Y.C., Kocagöz S., Larson J.C., Brey E.M. Evaluation of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Porous Poly (Ethylene Glycol)-co-(L-Lactic Acid) Hydrogels during Degradation. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e60728. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060728. PubMed DOI PMC

Gerhardt L.-C., Boccaccini A.R. Bioactive Glass and Glass-Ceramic Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering. Materials. 2010;3:3867–3910. doi: 10.3390/ma3073867. PubMed DOI PMC

Misch C.E., Zhimin Q., Bidez M.W.J. Mechanical properties of trabecular bone in the human mandible: Implications for dental implant treatment planning and surgical placement. J. Oral. Maxillofac. Surg. 1999;57:700–706. doi: 10.1016/S0278-2391(99)90437-8. PubMed DOI