Air pollution and climate change have a significant impact on human health and well-being and contribute to the onset and aggravation of allergic rhinitis and asthma among other chronic respiratory diseases. In Westernized countries, households have experienced a process of increasing insulation and individuals tend to spend most of their time indoors. These sequelae implicate a high exposure to indoor allergens (house dust mites, pets, molds, etc), tobacco smoke, and other pollutants, which have an impact on respiratory health. Outdoor air pollution derived from traffic and other human activities not only has a direct negative effect on human health but also enhances the allergenicity of some plants and contributes to global warming. Climate change modifies the availability and distribution of plant- and fungal-derived allergens and increases the frequency of extreme climate events. This review summarizes the effects of indoor air pollution, outdoor air pollution, and subsequent climate change on asthma and allergic rhinitis in children and adults and addresses the policy adjustments and lifestyle changes required to mitigate their deleterious effects.

Allergy Unit IBIMA Hospital Regional Universitario de Malaga UMA Malaga Spain

Department of Botany Ecology and Plant Physiology International Campus of Excellence on Agrifood University of Córdoba Córdoba Spain

Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology Sechenov University Moscow Russia

Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics MRC Centre for Environment and Health School of Public Health Imperial College London London UK

Department of General ORL Head and Neck Surgery Medical University of Graz Graz Austria

Department of Pathology and Medical Biology University Medical Center Groningen GRIAC Research Institute University of Groningen Groningen The Netherlands

Department of Respiratory Medicine 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Thomayer Hospital Prague Czech Republic

Department of Respiratory Medicine Amsterdam UMC University of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands

Department of Respiratory Medicine and Allergology Institute for Clinical Science Skane University Hospital Lund University Lund Sweden

Division of Infection Immunity and Respiratory Medicine School of Biological Sciences The University of Manchester Manchester Academic Health Science Centre UK

Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Disease Research Center Borstel Leibniz Lung Center Member of the German Research Center for Lung Research Borstel Germany

Institute for Occupational Social and Environmental Medicine Medical Faculty University of Düsseldorf Düsseldorf Germany

National Heart and Lung Institute Imperial College London London UK

North West Lung Centre Wythenshawe Hospital Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust Southmoor Road Manchester UK

Section of Paediatrics Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine University of Pisa Pisa Italy

The George Institute for Global Health University of Oxford Oxford UK

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Pre-asthma: a useful concept for prevention and disease-modification? A EUFOREA paper. Part 1-allergic asthma

Impact of COVID-19 on Pediatric Asthma: Practice Adjustments and Disease Burden