Hepatitis B virus (HBV) has been infecting humans for millennia and remains a global health problem, but its past diversity and dispersal routes are largely unknown. We generated HBV genomic data from 137 Eurasians and Native Americans dated between ~10,500 and ~400 years ago. We date the most recent common ancestor of all HBV lineages to between ~20,000 and 12,000 years ago, with the virus present in European and South American hunter-gatherers during the early Holocene. After the European Neolithic transition, Mesolithic HBV strains were replaced by a lineage likely disseminated by early farmers that prevailed throughout western Eurasia for ~4000 years, declining around the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. The only remnant of this prehistoric HBV diversity is the rare genotype G, which appears to have reemerged during the HIV pandemic.

Al Farabi Kazakh National University Almaty Kazakhstan

Anuchin Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow Russia

Applied Archaeology School of Science Institute of Technology Sligo Ireland

ARC Centre of Excellence for Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers School of Mathematical Sciences University of Adelaide Adelaide SA 5005 Australia

Archaeo and Palaeogenetics group Institute for Archaeological Sciences Eberhard Karls University Tübingen 72070 Tübingen Germany

ArchaeoZoology in Siberia and Central Asia ZooSCAn CNRS IAET SB RAS International Research Laboratory IRL 2013 Novosibirsk Russia

Área de Prehistoria P3A DGA Research Group IPH University of Zaragoza C Pedro Cerbuna 12 50009 Zaragoza Spain

Arizona State University School of Human Evolution and Social Change Tempe Arizona USA

Astrakhan State University Astrakhan Russia

Australian Centre for Ancient DNA School of Biological Sciences and The Environment Institute Adelaide University Adelaide SA 5005 Australia

Azov History Archaeology and Palaeontology Museum Reserve Azov 346780 Russia

Bioarchaeology Service Museum of Civilizations Rome Italy

Biobank of North Eurasia Moscow Russia

Branch of Institute of Archaeology named after A Kh Margulan 24 of 511 Nur Sultan Kazakhstan

Caribbean Research Institute Univeristy of Winnipeg Winnipeg MB Canada

Center for Archaeological Sciences University of Leuven Belgium

Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage University of Adelaide Adelaide SA 5005 Australia

Cranfield Forensic Institute Cranfield Defence and Security Cranfield University College Road Cranfield MK43 0AL UK

Cronos S C Arqueología y Patrimonio Burgos Spain

Danube Private University Center of Natural and Cultural Human History A 3500 Krems Stein Austria

Departament de Prehistòria Arqueologia i Història Antiga Universitat de València València Spain

Departamento de Biotecnología Facultad de Ciencias Universidad de Alicante 03690 Alicante Spain

Department of Anthropology Harvard University Cambridge MA 02138 USA

Department of Anthropology Michigan State University East Lansing MI 48824 USA

Department of Anthropology The National Museum Prague Czech Republic

Department of Anthropology University of North Carolina at Charlotte Charlotte NC USA

Department of Anthropology University of South Florida Tampa FL USA

Department of Anthropology University of Winnipeg Winnipeg MB Canada

Department of Anthropology Vanderbilt University Nashville TN 37235 USA

Department of Anthropology Yale University New Haven CT 06511 USA

Department of Archaeogenetics Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology 04103 Leipzig Germany

Department of Archaeogenetics Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History 07745 Jena Germany

Department of Archaeology Classics and Egyptology University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7WZ UK

Department of Archaeology Durham University South Road Durham DH1 3LE UK

Department of Archaeology Faculty of History Lomonosov Moscow State University 119192 Moscow Russia

Department of Archaeology Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Alahan Antakya Hatay 31060 Turkey

Department of Archeology and Heritage Studies Aarhus University 8270 Højbjerg Denmark

Department of Biology University of Turku 20500 Turku Finland

Department of Biomedical Engineering CH 4123 Allschwil Switzerland

Department of Biosciences University of Helsinki 00014 Helsinki Finland

Department of Cultures University of Helsinki 00014 Helsinki Finland

Department of Forensic Medicine University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Department of Genetics Harvard Medical School Boston MA USA

Department of Geological Sciences University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa

Department of History Geography and Comunication University of Burgos Paseo de Comendadores s n 09001 Burgos Spain

Department of Human Evolution Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology 04103 Leipzig Germany

Department of Human Evolutionary Biology Harvard University Cambridge MA 02138 USA

Department of Human Genetics Leiden University Medical Center Leiden 2333 ZC Netherlands

Department of Physical Anthropology Institute of Forensic Medicine University of Bern Bern Switzerland

Department of Prehistory and Archaeology Faculty of Philosophy and Letters Autonomous University of Madrid Spain

Department of Prehistory and Archaeology Faculty of Philosophy and Letters University of Valladolid Spain

Department of Prehistory and Archaeology National Distance Education University Madrid Spain

Department of Veterinary Medicine University of Cambridge Cambridge CB3 0ES UK

Departmento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo SP Brazil

DFG Center for Advanced Studies Words Bones Genes Tools University of Tübingen Tübingen Germany

Dienst Archeologie Stad Mechelen Belgium

Dipartimento Asia Africa e Mediterraneo Università di Napoli L'Orientale Napoli Italy

Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Università di Sassari Sassari Italy

Division of Hepatology Department of Medicine 2 Leipzig University Medical Center Leipzig Germany

Estonian Biocentre Institute of Genomics University of Tartu Tartu Estonia

Eurasia Department German Archaeological Institute Berlin Germany

European Virus Bioinformatics Center Jena Germany

Forensic Medicine Unit Finnish Institute of Health and Welfare Helsinki Finland

Freie Universität Berlin Einstein Center Chronoi 14195 Berlin Germany

Grupo de Investigación en Prehistoria IT 1223 19 IKERBASQUE Basque Foundation for Science Vitoria Spain

Grupo de Investigación y Desarrollo Dirección Provincial de Cultura Matanzas Cuba

Human_G Laboratory Department of Anthropology Hacettepe University Ankara 06800 Turkey

Immunogenetics Unit Técnicas Genéticas Aplicadas a la Clínica Mexico City Mexico

INRAP ARAR UMR 5138 Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée Lyon France

Institut für Vor und Frühgeschichtliche Archäologie und Provinzialrömische Archäologie Ludwig Maximilians Universität München 80539 Munich Germany

Institute for Caucasus Archaeology 361401 Nalchik Republic Kabardino Balkaria Russia

Institute for Prehistory Early History and Medieval Archaeology University of Tübingen 72070 Tübingen Germany

Institute for Research in Archaeology and Historical Heritage University of Alicante 03690 Alicante Spain

Institute for the Study of the Ancient World New York University New York NY 10028 USA

Institute of Archaeology named after A Kh Khalikov Tatarstan Academy of Sciences Kazan Russia

Institute of archaeology named after A Kh Margulan 44 Almaty Kazakhstan

Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Archaeology Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow 117292 Russia

Institute of Biology University of Hildeshein Germany

Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow Russia

Institute of Evolutionary Biology CSIC Universitat Pompeu Fabra Barcelona Spain

Institute of Evolutionary Medicine University of Zürich 8057 Zürich Switzerland

Institute of Genetics and Physiology 050060 Almaty Kazakhstan

Institute of History Archaeology and Ethnography Dushanbe Tajikistan

Institute of Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology University of Vienna Austria

Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological Science Spalenring 145 CH 4055 Basel Switzerland

Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica CNR Monserrato Italy

Koç University Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations Istanbul 34433 Turkey

Laboratory of Structural Biology Kazan Federal University Kazan Russia

Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology 10117 Berlin Germany

Melbourne Dental School University of Melbourne Victoria 3010 Australia

Molecular Genetics Laboratory Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia Mexico City Mexico

Museo Archeologico Regionale Antonino Salinas 90133 Palermo Italy

Museo de Sitio Pucllana s n Miraflores 18 Lima Peru

Nasledie Cultural Heritage Unit 355006 Stavropol Russia

National Archaeological Institute with Museum at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia 1000 Bulgaria

National Centre for Indigenous Genomics Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia

National Museum of Antiquities 2301 EC Leiden Netherlands

Osteology Laboratory Post Graduate Studies Division Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia Mexico City Mexico

Oxford Archaeology East Bar Hill Cambridge CB23 8SQ UK

Oxford Archaeology South Janus House Osney Mead Oxford OX2 0ES UK

Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography RAS 199034 St Petersburg Russia

Private contractor Cagliari Sardinia Italy

Private Technical Archaeologist 50196 La Muela Spain

Regional Historical Museum Varna Varna BG 9000 Bulgaria

Research Centre for Medical Genetics Moscow Russia

Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences Brussels Belgium

Samara Museum for Historical and Regional Studies named after P 5 Alabin Samara Russia

Samara State University of Social Sciences and Education Samara Russia

School of Biological Sciences University of Adelaide Adelaide SA 5005 Australia

School of Historical and Philosophical Studies University of Melbourne Victoria 3010 Australia

School of Natural Sciences University of Central Lancashire Preston UK

Sedgeford Historical and Archaeological Research Project Old Village Hall Sedgeford Hunstanton PE36 5LS UK

SNSB State Collection for Anthropology and Palaeoanatomy 80333 Munich Germany

South Tyrol Provincial Heritage Service South Tyrol Italy

State Historical and Cultural Museum Reserve Berel Katon Karagay district East Kazakhstan region Kazakhstan

State Historical Museum Moscow Russia

State Office for Cultural Heritage Baden Württemberg 78467 Konstanz Germany

State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology Saxony Anhalt and State Museum of Prehistory D 06114 Halle Germany

Sterlitamak Museum of Local History Sterlitamak Russia

Technical Archaeologist Government of Aragón Spain

Territorial Service of Culture and Tourism from Valladolid Castilla y León Regional Government C San Lorenzo 5 47001 Valladolid Spain

The City of Prague Museum Prague Czech Republic

The Cultural Heritage Foundation 722 12 Västerås Sweden

Thuringian State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology 99423 Weimar Germany

Transmission Infection Diversification and Evolution Group Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History 07745 Jena Germany

UCSC Genomics Institute University of California at Santa Cruz Santa Cruz CA 95064 USA

UCSC Paleogenomics Laboratory Department of Anthropology University of California at Santa Cruz Santa Cruz CA 95064 USA

Universidad de Matanzas Matanzas Cuba

Université Côte d'Azur CNRS CEPAM UMR 7264 Nice France

Université de Bordeaux CNRS PACEA UMR 5199 Pessac France

Université de Strasbourg CNRS Archimède UMR 7044 Strasbourg France

University Medical School Göttingen Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology 37075 Göttingen Germany

University Medical School Göttingen Institute of Anatomy and Embryology 37075 Göttingen Germany

Vavilov Institute of General Genetics Moscow Russia

Citace poskytuje Crossref.org

G-quadruplexes in the evolution of hepatitis B virus