The aim of the paper was to assess the differences in the mental distress of university students in the first and second waves of COVID-19, to compare these levels with that of the general population as well as to identify the risk factors associated with the changes in mental health. A total of 2,025 university students in core psychology courses in all years of study at the Faculty of Education at Palacký University Olomouc were approached via e-mail. Of this number of students, 800 students took part in the study, divided into two groups from the spring (N = 438) and autumn (N = 362) pandemic waves. The data were collected online via Google Forms using a battery of questionnaires and analyzed using the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test, One-Sample Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test and binary logistic regression. The results showed a high prevalence of depressive symptoms (38.4 and 51.4%), significant anxiety (43.8 and 37%), and high stress (19.9 and 22.9%) among students in both waves of the pandemic. Depression and stress also increased significantly during the second wave compared with the first one (r = 0.18 [0.12, 0.25] and r = 0.08 [0.01, 0.14]). Finally, university students showed significantly higher levels of mental distress than the general population in all of the variables and in both waves (r = 0.42-0.86). A variety of factors influenced different aspects of mental distress in the spring and autumn pandemic waves. Emotion regulation emerged as the most significant and pervasive factor, both influencing all of the three indicators of mental distress and being a significant predictor in both waves.

Department of Psychology and Abnormal Psychology Faculty of Education Palacký University Olomouc Olomouc Czechia

Translational Neuroscience and Aging Program Centre for Translational Medicine International Clinical Research Centre St Anne's University Hospital Brno Brno Czechia

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Ahmedani B. K. (2011). Mental health stigma: society, individuals, and the profession. PubMed PMC

Barzilay R., Moore T. M., Greenberg D. M., DiDomenico G. E., Brown L. A., White L. K., et al. (2020). Resilience, COVID-19-related stress, anxiety and depression during the pandemic in a large population enriched for healthcare providers. PubMed DOI PMC

Baumsteiger R., Siegel J. T. (2019). Measuring prosociality: the development of a prosocial behavioral intentions scale. PubMed DOI

Belleau E. L., Treadway M. T., Pizzagalli D. A. (2019). The impact of stress and major depressive disorder on hippocampal and medial prefrontal cortex morphology. PubMed DOI PMC

Browning M. H. E. M., Larson L. R., Sharaievska I., Rigolon A., McAnirlin O., Mullenbach L., et al. (2021). Psychological impacts from COVID-19 among university students: risk factors across seven states in the United States. PubMed DOI PMC

Bueno-Notivol J., Gracia-García P., Olaya B., Lasheras I., López-Antón R., Santabárbara J. (2021). Prevalence of depression during the COVID-19 outbreak: a meta-analysis of community-based studies. PubMed DOI PMC

Cao W., Fang Z., Hou G., Han M., Xu X., Dong J., et al. (2020). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. PubMed DOI PMC

Cohen S., Williamson G. M. (1988). “Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States,” in

Di Tella M., Romeo A., Benfante A., Castelli L. (2020). Mental health of healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. PubMed DOI

Everaert J., Joormann J. (2019). Emotion regulation difficulties related to depression and anxiety: a network approach to model relations among symptoms, positive reappraisal, and repetitive negative thinking. DOI

Fruehwirth J. C., Biswas S., Perreira K. M. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and mental health of first-year college students: examining the effect of COVID-19 stressors using longitudinal data. PubMed DOI PMC

Gasteiger N., Vedhara K., Massey A., Jia R., Ayling K., Chalder T., et al. (2021). Depression, anxiety and stress during the COVID-19 pandemic: results from a New Zealand cohort study on mental well-being. PubMed DOI PMC

Gratz K. L., Roemer L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. DOI

Guo W.-P., Min Q., Gu W.-W., Yu L., Xiao X., Yi W.-B., et al. (2021). Prevalence of mental health problems in frontline healthcare workers after the first outbreak of COVID-19 in China: a cross-sectional study. PubMed DOI PMC

Hao Q., Wang D., Xie M., Tang Y., Dou Y., Zhu L., et al. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors of mental health problems among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PubMed DOI PMC

Holingue C., Badillo-Goicoechea E., Riehm K. E., Veldhuis C. B., Thrul J., Johnson R. M., et al. (2020). Mental distress during the COVID-19 pandemic among US adults without a pre-existing mental health condition: findings from American trend panel survey. PubMed DOI PMC

Houtjes W., van Meijel B., van de Ven P. M., Deeg D., van Tilburg T., Beekman A. (2014). The impact of an unfavorable depression course on network size and loneliness in older people: a longitudinal study in the community. PubMed DOI

Kang L., Ma S., Chen M., Yang J., Wang Y., Li R., et al. (2020). Impact on mental health and perceptions of psychological care among medical and nursing staff in Wuhan during the 2019 novel coronavirus disease outbreak: a cross-sectional study. PubMed DOI PMC

Kovaleva A. (2012). DOI

Křeménková L., Novotný J. S. (2021). Psychological impact of COVID-19 epidemiological measures on czech university students and potential protective and risk personality factors in educational setting. DOI

Lakhan R., Agrawal A., Sharma M. (2020). Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress during COVID-19 pandemic. PubMed DOI PMC

Löwe B., Wahl I., Rose M., Spitzer C., Glaesmer H., Wingenfeld K., et al. (2010). A 4-item measure of depression and anxiety: validation and standardization of the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) in the general population. PubMed DOI

Luo M., Guo L., Yu M., Jiang W., Wang H. (2020). The psychological and mental impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on medical staff and general public - A systematic review and meta-analysis. PubMed DOI PMC

Magnavita N., Soave P. M., Antonelli M. (2021a). A one-year prospective study of work-related mental health in the intensivists of a COVID-19 hub hospital. PubMed DOI PMC

Magnavita N., Soave P. M., Antonelli M. (2021b). Prolonged stress causes depression in frontline workers facing the COVID-19 pandemic—a repeated cross-sectional study in a COVID-19 Hub-hospital in central Italy. PubMed DOI PMC

Magnavita N., Soave P. M., Antonelli M. (2021c). Teaching safety - resident anaesthetists at the forefront of COVID-19. PubMed DOI PMC

Markarian S. A., Pickett S. M., Deveson D. F., Kanona B. B. (2013). A model of BIS/BAS sensitivity, emotion regulation difficulties, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms in relation to sleep quality. PubMed DOI

Mo T., Layous K., Zhou X., Sedikides C. (2021). Distressed but happy: health workers and volunteers during the COVID-19 pandemic. PubMed DOI PMC

Novotný J. S., Gonzalez-Rivas J. P., Kunzová Š, Skladaná M., Pospíšilová A., Polcrová A., et al. (2020). Risk factors underlying COVID-19 lockdown-induced mental distress. PubMed DOI PMC

Nurunnabi M., Almusharraf N., Aldeghaither D. (2021). Mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic in higher education: evidence from G20 countries. PubMed DOI PMC

Parcesepe A. M., Cabassa L. J. (2013). Public stigma of mental illness in the United States: a systematic literature review. PubMed DOI PMC

Ran L., Wang W., Ai M., Kong Y., Chen J., Kuang L. (2020). Psychological resilience, depression, anxiety, and somatization symptoms in response to COVID-19: a study of the general population in China at the peak of its epidemic. PubMed DOI PMC

Renton T., Tang H., Ennis N., Cusimano M. D., Bhalerao S., Schweizer T. A., et al. (2014). Web-based intervention programs for depression: a scoping review and evaluation. PubMed DOI PMC

Roberts T., Miguel Esponda G., Krupchanka D., Shidhaye R., Patel V., Rathod S. (2018). Factors associated with health service utilisation for common mental disorders: a systematic review. PubMed DOI PMC

Rossi R., Socci V., Talevi D., Mensi S., Niolu C., Pacitti F., et al. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown measures impact on mental health among the general population in Italy. PubMed DOI PMC

Rudenstine S., McNeal K., Schulder T., Ettman C. K., Hernandez M., Gvozdieva K., et al. (2021). Depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 Pandemic in an Urban, low-income public university sample. PubMed DOI PMC

Rudnik A., Anikiej-Wiczenbach P., Szulman-Wardal A., Conway P., Bidzan M. (2021). Offering psychological support to university students in poland during the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned from an initial evaluation. PubMed DOI PMC

Russo C., Terraneo M. (2020). Mental well-being among workers: a cross-national analysis of job insecurity impact on the workforce. DOI

Şahin M. K., Aker S., Şahin G., Karabekiroğlu A. (2020). Prevalence of depression, anxiety, distress and insomnia and related factors in healthcare workers during COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. PubMed DOI PMC

Simon J., Helter T. M., White R. G., van der Boor C., Łaszewska A. (2021). Impacts of the COVID-19 lockdown and relevant vulnerabilities on capability well-being, mental health and social support: an Austrian survey study. PubMed DOI PMC

Son C., Hegde S., Smith A., Wang X., Sasangohar F. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on college students’ mental health in the United States: interview survey study. PubMed DOI PMC

Torjesen I. (2021). COVID-19: delta variant is now UK’s most dominant strain and spreading through schools. PubMed DOI

Vaishnavi S., Connor K., Davidson J. R. T. (2007). An abbreviated version of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), the CD-RISC2: psychometric properties and applications in psychopharmacological trials. PubMed DOI PMC

Varma P., Junge M., Meaklim H., Jackson M. L. (2021). Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: a global cross-sectional survey. PubMed DOI PMC

Villani L., Pastorino R., Molinari E., Anelli F., Ricciardi W., Graffigna G., et al. (2021). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological well-being of students in an Italian university: a web-based cross-sectional survey. PubMed DOI PMC

Viner R., Russell S., Saulle R., Croker H., Stansfeld C., Packer J., et al. (2021). Impacts of school closures on physical and mental health of children and young people: a systematic review. DOI

Wang X., Tao J., Zhu Q., Wu X., Li T., Zhao C., et al. (2021). Depression and anxiety symptoms to COVID-19 outbreak among the public, medical staff and patients during the initial phase of the pandemic: an online questionnaire survey by a WeChat Mini Program. PubMed DOI PMC

Xu Y., Su S., Jiang Z., Guo S., Lu Q., Liu L., et al. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors of mental health symptoms and suicidal behavior among university students in Wuhan, China during the COVID-19 pandemic. PubMed DOI PMC

Zhang K., Peng Y., Zhang X., Li L. (2021). Psychological burden and experiences following exposure to COVID-19: a qualitative and quantitative study of Chinese medical student volunteers. PubMed DOI PMC

Zheng X., Guo Y., Ma W., Yang H., Luo L., Wen L., et al. (2021). A longitudinal study on the Mental health of college students in Jinan during the peak stage of the COVID-19 epidemic and the society reopening. PubMed PMC

Path analysis reveals cross-country differences between Czech and Chinese university students in effect of internet and smartphone addiction, mental health, and personality traits on academic achievement in the post-pandemic era

The effect of mobile phone addiction on perceived stress and mediating role of ruminations: Evidence from Chinese and Czech university students

Internet Addiction, Symptoms of Anxiety, Depressive Symptoms, Stress Among Higher Education Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic