BACKGROUND: There is a large treatment gap for common mental disorders (CMD), with wide variation by world region. This review identifies factors associated with formal health service utilisation for CMD in the general adult population, and compares evidence from high-income countries (HIC) with that from low-and-middle-income countries (LMIC). METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE and Scopus in May 2016. Eligibility criteria were: published in English, in peer-reviewed journals; using population-based samples; employing standardised CMD measures; measuring use of formal health services for mental health reasons by people with CMD; testing the association between this outcome and any other factor(s). Risk of bias was assessed using the adapted Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. We synthesised the results using "best fit framework synthesis", with reference to the Andersen socio-behavioural model. RESULTS: Fifty two studies met inclusion criteria. 46 (88%) were from HIC. Predisposing factors: There was evidence linking increased likelihood of service use with female gender; Caucasian ethnicity; higher education levels; and being unmarried; although this was not consistent across all studies. Need factors: There was consistent evidence of an association between service utilisation and self-evaluated health status; duration of symptoms; disability; comorbidity; and panic symptoms. Associations with symptom severity were frequently but less consistently reported. Enabling factors: The evidence did not support an association with income or rural residence. Inconsistent evidence was found for associations between unemployment or having health insurance and use of services. There was a lack of research from LMIC and on contextual level factors. CONCLUSION: In HIC, failure to seek treatment for CMD is associated with less disabling symptoms and lack of perceived need for healthcare, consistent with suggestions that "treatment gap" statistics over-estimate unmet need for care as perceived by the target population. Economic factors and urban/rural residence appear to have little effect on treatment-seeking rates. Strategies to address potential healthcare inequities for men, ethnic minorities, the young and the elderly in HIC require further evaluation. The generalisability of these findings beyond HIC is limited. Future research should examine factors associated with health service utilisation for CMD in LMIC, and the effect of health systems and neighbourhood factors. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration number: 42016046551 .

Care and Public Health Research Institute Maastricht University Maastricht Netherlands

Centre for Chronic Conditions and Injuries Public Health Foundation of India New Delhi India

Centre for Global Mental Health Department of Population Health Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Keppel Street London WC1E 7HT UK

Department of Global Health and Social Medicine Harvard Medical School Boston USA

Department of Social Psychiatry National Institute of Mental Health Prague Czech Republic

Health Service and Population Research Department Institute of Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience King's College London London UK

Institute of Global Health University of Geneva Geneva Switzerland

Zobrazit více v PubMed

World Health Organization. Depression and Other Common Mental Disorders: Global Health Estimates. Geneva; 2017. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254610/WHOMSD?sequence=1 [Accessed 02/07/2018]

Ormel J, VonKorff M, Ustun TB, Pini S, Korten A, Oldehinkel T. Common mental disorders and disability across cultures: results from the WHO collaborative study on psychological problems in general health care. JAMA. 1994;272(22):1741–1748. doi: 10.1001/jama.1994.03520220035028. PubMed DOI

Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010. Lancet. 2013;380(9859):2163–2196. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. PubMed DOI PMC

Patel V, Araya R, Chatterjee S, Chisholm D, Cohen A, De Silva M, et al. Treatment and prevention of mental disorders in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet. 2007;370(9591):991–1005. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61240-9. PubMed DOI

Kohn R, Saxena S, Levav I, Saraceno B. The treatment gap in mental health care. Bull World Health Organ. 2004;82(11):858–866. PubMed PMC

Sagar R, Pattanayak RD, Chandrasekaran R, Chaudhury PK, Deswal BS, Singh RL, et al. Twelve-month prevalence and treatment gap for common mental disorders: findings from a large-scale epidemiological survey in India. Indian J Psychiatry. 2017;59(1):46. doi: 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_333_16. PubMed DOI PMC

Demyttenaere K, Bruffaerts R, Posada-Villa J, Gasquet I, Kovess V, Lepine J, et al. Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organization world mental health surveys. JAMA. 2004;291(21):2581–2590. doi: 10.1001/jama.291.21.2581. PubMed DOI

Wang PS, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Angermeyer MC, Borges G, Bromet EJ, et al. Use of mental health services for anxiety, mood, and substance disorders in 17 countries in the WHO world mental health surveys. Lancet. 2007;370(9590):841–850. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61414-7. PubMed DOI PMC

Chisholm D, Flisher A, Lund C, Patel V, Saxena S, Thornicroft G, et al. Scale up services for mental disorders: a call for action. Lancet. 2007;370(9594):1241–1252. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61242-2. PubMed DOI

Patel V, Boyce N, Collins PY, Saxena S, Horton R. A renewed agenda for global mental health. Lancet (London, England) 2011;378(9801):1441. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61385-8. PubMed DOI PMC

Eaton J, McCay L, Semrau M, Chatterjee S, Baingana F, Araya R, et al. Scale up of services for mental health in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet. 2011;378(9802):1592–1603. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60891-X. PubMed DOI

Lund C, Tomlinson M, De Silva M, Fekadu A, Shidhaye R, Jordans M, et al. PRIME: a programme to reduce the treatment gap for mental disorders in five low-and middle-income countries. PLoS Med. 2012;9(12):e1001359. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001359. PubMed DOI PMC

Organization WH . mhGAP: Mental Health Gap Action Programme: scaling up care for mental, neurological and substance use disorders. 2008. PubMed

De Silva MJ, Lee L, Fuhr DC, Rathod S, Chisholm D, Schellenberg J, et al. Estimating the coverage of mental health programmes: a systematic review. Int J Epidemiol. 2014;43(2):341–353. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyt191. PubMed DOI PMC

Penchansky R, Thomas JW. The concept of access: definition and relationship to consumer satisfaction. Med Care. 1981;19:127–140. doi: 10.1097/00005650-198102000-00001. PubMed DOI

Donabedian A. Aspects of medicalcare administration: specifying requirements for health care. 1973.

Andersen RM. A Behavioral Model of Families' Use of Health Services. Chicago, IL: Center for Health Administration Studies, University of Chicago. 1968. Research Series no. 25.

Babitsch B, Gohl D, von Lengerke T. Re-revisiting Andersen’s behavioral model of health services use: a systematic review of studies from 1998–2011. GMS Psycho-Social-Medicine. 2012;9:Doc11. PubMed PMC

Andersen RM. Revisiting the behavioral model and access to medical care: does it matter? J Health Soc Behav. 1995;36:1–10. doi: 10.2307/2137284. PubMed DOI

Andersen RM, Davidson PL, Baumeister SE. Improving access to care. Changing the US health care system: Key issues in health services policy and management. 2013. pp. 33–69.

Phillips KA, Morrison KR, Andersen R, Aday LA. Understanding the context of healthcare utilization: assessing environmental and provider-related variables in the behavioral model of utilization. Health Serv Res. 1998;33(3 Pt 1):571. PubMed PMC

Çalışkan Z, Kılıç D, Öztürk S, Atılgan E. Equity in maternal health care service utilization: a systematic review for developing countries. Int J Public Health. 2015;60(7):815–825. doi: 10.1007/s00038-015-0711-x. PubMed DOI

Brennan A, Morley D, O’Leary AC, Bergin CJ, Horgan M. Determinants of HIV outpatient service utilization: a systematic review. AIDS Behav. 2015;19(1):104–119. doi: 10.1007/s10461-014-0814-z. PubMed DOI

Say L, Raine R. A systematic review of inequalities in the use of maternal health care in developing countries: examining the scale of the problem and the importance of context. Bull World Health Organ. 2007;85(10):812–819. doi: 10.2471/BLT.06.035659. PubMed DOI PMC

Magaard JL, Seeralan T, Schulz H, Brütt AL. Factors associated with help-seeking behaviour among individuals with major depression: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2017;12(5):e0176730. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176730. PubMed DOI PMC

Goldberg DP, Huxley P. Common mental disorders: a bio-social model: Tavistock/Routledge. 1992.

Goldberg D. Plato versus Aristotle: categorical and dimensional models for common mental disorders. Compr Psychiatry. 2000;41(2):8–13. doi: 10.1016/S0010-440X(00)80002-4. PubMed DOI

Das-Munshi J, Goldberg D, Bebbington PE, Bhugra DK, Brugha TS, Dewey ME, et al. Public health significance of mixed anxiety and depression: beyond current classification. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;192(3):171–177. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.107.036707. PubMed DOI

Jacob K, Prince M, Goldberg D. Confirmatory factor analysis of common mental disorders. Diagnostic Issues in Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V. 2010.

Jacob K, Patel V. Classification of mental disorders: a global mental health perspective. Lancet. 2014;383(9926):1433–1435. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62382-X. PubMed DOI

Patel V. Rethinking mental health care: bridging the credibility gap. Intervention. 2014;12:15–20. doi: 10.1097/WTF.0000000000000065. DOI

Roberts T, Rathod S, Patel V, Shidhaye R. Review protocol: factors associated with health service utilisation for symptoms of common mental disorders PROSPERO international prospective register of systematic reviews: University of York: Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. 2016.

Lewis G, Pelosi AJ, Araya R, Dunn G. Measuring psychiatric disorder in the community: a standardized assessment for use by lay interviewers. Psychol Med. 1992;22(02):465–486. doi: 10.1017/S0033291700030415. PubMed DOI

Patel V, Araya R, Chowdhary N, King M, Kirkwood B, Nayak S, et al. Detecting common mental disorders in primary care in India: a comparison of five screening questionnaires. Psychol Med. 2008;38(2):221–228. doi: 10.1017/S0033291707002334. PubMed DOI PMC

Stansfeld S, Clark C, Bebbington P, King M, Jenkins R, Hinchliffe S. Common mental disorders. Mental health and wellbeing in England: Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. 2014.

Franz A. Predictors of help-seeking behavior in emerging adults. 2012.

Pescosolido BA, Olafsdottir S. The Cultural Turn in Sociology: Can It Help Us Resolve an Age‐Old Problem in Understanding Decision Making for Health Care? Sociological Forum 2010 Dec (Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 655-676). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. PubMed PMC

Armitage CJ, Norman P, Alganem S, Conner M. Expectations are more predictive of behavior than behavioral intentions: evidence from two prospective studies. Ann Behav Med. 2015;49(2):239–246. doi: 10.1007/s12160-014-9653-4. PubMed DOI

Chin WY, Chan KT, Lam CL, Lam T, Wan EY. Help-seeking intentions and subsequent 12-month mental health service use in Chinese primary care patients with depressive symptoms. BMJ Open. 2015;5(1):e006730. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006730. PubMed DOI PMC

Stefl ME, Prosperi DC. Barriers to mental health service utilization. Community Ment Health J. 1985;21(3):167–178. doi: 10.1007/BF00754732. PubMed DOI

Pluye P, Gagnon M-P, Griffiths F, Johnson-Lafleur J. A scoring system for appraising mixed methods research, and concomitantly appraising qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods primary studies in mixed studies reviews. Int J Nurs Stud. 2009;46(4):529–546. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.01.009. PubMed DOI

Pace R, Pluye P, Bartlett G, Macaulay AC, Salsberg J, Jagosh J, et al. Testing the reliability and efficiency of the pilot mixed methods appraisal tool (MMAT) for systematic mixed studies review. Int J Nurs Stud. 2012;49(1):47–53. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2011.07.002. PubMed DOI

Carroll C, Booth A, Leaviss J, Rick J. “Best fit” framework synthesis: refining the method. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2013;13(1):37. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-13-37. PubMed DOI PMC

Teo CH, Ng CJ, Booth A, White A. Barriers and facilitators to health screening in men: a systematic review. Soc Sci Med. 2016;165:168–176. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.07.023. PubMed DOI

Coxon K, Chisholm A, Malouf R, Rowe R, Hollowell J. What influences birth place preferences, choices and decision-making amongst healthy women with straightforward pregnancies in the UK? A qualitative evidence synthesis using a ‘best fit’framework approach. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2017;17(1):103. doi: 10.1186/s12884-017-1279-7. PubMed DOI PMC

Iza M, Olfson M, Vermes D, Hoffer M, Wang S, Blanco C. Probability and predictors of first treatment contact for anxiety disorders in the United States: analysis of data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcohol and related conditions (NESARC) J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(11):1093–1100. doi: 10.4088/JCP.13m08361. PubMed DOI

Bucholz KK, Robins LN. Who talks to a doctor about existing depressive illness? J Affect Disord. 1987;12(3):241–250. doi: 10.1016/0165-0327(87)90033-4. PubMed DOI

Gwynn RC, McQuistion HL, McVeigh KH, Garg RK, Frieden TR, Thorpe LE. Prevalence, diagnosis, and treatment of depression and generalized anxiety disorder in a diverse urban community. Psychiatr Serv. 2008;59(6):641–647. doi: 10.1176/ps.2008.59.6.641. PubMed DOI

Carragher N, Adamson G, Bunting B, McCann S. Treatment-seeking behaviours for depression in the general population: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcohol and related conditions. J Affect Disord. 2010;121(1):59–67. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2009.05.009. PubMed DOI

Fortney J, Rost K, Zhang M. A joint choice model of the decision to seek depression treatment and choice of provider sector. Med Care. 1998;36(3):307–320. doi: 10.1097/00005650-199803000-00008. PubMed DOI

Issakidis C, Andrews G. Service utilisation for anxiety in an Australian community sample. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2002;37(4):153–163. doi: 10.1007/s001270200009. PubMed DOI

Mackenzie CS, Reynolds K, Cairney J, Streiner DL, Sareen J. Disorder-specific mental health service use for mood and anxiety disorders: associations with age, sex, and psychiatric comorbidity. Depress Anxiety. 2012;29(3):234–242. doi: 10.1002/da.20911. PubMed DOI PMC

Ojeda VD, McGuire TG. Gender and racial/ethnic differences in use of outpatient mental health and substance use services by depressed adults. Psychiatry Q. 2006;77(3):211–222. doi: 10.1007/s11126-006-9008-9. PubMed DOI

Rost K, Zhang M, Fortney J, Smith J, Smith GR., Jr Rural-urban differences in depression treatment and suicidality. Med Care. 1998;36(7):1098–1107. doi: 10.1097/00005650-199807000-00015. PubMed DOI

Roy-Byrne PP, Joesch JM, Wang PS, Kessler RC. Low socioeconomic status and mental health care use among respondents with anxiety and depression in the NCS-R. Psychiatr Serv. 2009;60(9):1190–1197. doi: 10.1176/ps.2009.60.9.1190. PubMed DOI

Starkes JM, Poulin CC, Kisely SR. Unmet need for the treatment of depression in Atlantic Canada. Can J Psychiatry. 2005;50(10):580–590. doi: 10.1177/070674370505001003. PubMed DOI

Lopes CS, Hellwig N, Silva GA E, Menezes PR. Inequities in access to depression treatment: results of the Brazilian National Health Survey–PNS. Int J Equity Health. 2016;15(1):154. doi: 10.1186/s12939-016-0446-1. PubMed DOI PMC

Olfson M, Klerman G. Depressive symptoms and mental health service utilization in a community sample. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1992;27(4):161–167. doi: 10.1007/BF00789000. PubMed DOI

Chartrand H, Robinson J, Bolton JM. A longitudinal population-based study exploring treatment utilization and suicidal ideation and behavior in major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord. 2012;141(2):237–245. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.040. PubMed DOI

González HM, Vega WA, Williams DR, Tarraf W, West BT, Neighbors HW. Depression care in the United States: too little for too few. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(1):37–46. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.168. PubMed DOI PMC

Schomerus G, Appel K, Meffert PJ, Luppa M, Andersen RM, Grabe HJ, et al. Personality-related factors as predictors of help-seeking for depression: a population-based study applying the behavioral model of health services use. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013;48(11):1809–1817. doi: 10.1007/s00127-012-0643-1. PubMed DOI

Hailemariam S, Tessema F, Asefa M, Tadesse H, Tenkolu G. The prevalence of depression and associated factors in Ethiopia: findings from the National Health Survey. Int J Ment Heal Syst. 2012;6(1):23. doi: 10.1186/1752-4458-6-23. PubMed DOI PMC

Wang PS, Berglund P, Kessler RC. Recent care of common mental disorders in the United States. J Gen Intern Med. 2000;15(5):284–292. doi: 10.1046/j.1525-1497.2000.9908044.x. PubMed DOI PMC

Seedat S, Williams DR, Herman AA, Moomal H, Williams SL, Jackson PB, et al. Mental health service use among South Africans for mood, anxiety and substance use disorders. S Afr Med J. 2009;99(5):346–352. PubMed PMC

Gabilondo A, Rojas-Farreras S, Rodráguez A, Ferníndez A, Pinto-Meza A, Vilagut G, et al. Use of primary and specialized mental health care for a major depressive episode in Spain by ESEMeD respondents. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(2):152–161. doi: 10.1176/ps.62.2.pss6202_0152. PubMed DOI

Boerema AM, Kleiboer A, Beekman AT, van Zoonen K, Dijkshoorn H, Cuijpers P. Determinants of help-seeking behavior in depression: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry. 2016;16(1):78. doi: 10.1186/s12888-016-0790-0. PubMed DOI PMC

Chen J. Seeking help for psychological distress in urban China. J Comm Psychology. 2012;40(3):319–341. doi: 10.1002/jcop.20513. DOI

Vasiliadis H-M, Lesage A, Adair C, Wang PS, Kessler RC. Do Canada and the United States differ in prevalence of depression and utilization of services? Psychiatr Serv. 2007;58(1):63–71. doi: 10.1176/ps.2007.58.1.63. PubMed DOI

Rafful C, Medina-Mora ME, Borges G, Benjet C, Orozco R. Depression, gender, and the treatment gap in Mexico. J Affect Disord. 2012;138(1):165–169. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.040. PubMed DOI

Burnett-Zeigler I, Zivin K, Islam K, Ilgen MA. Longitudinal predictors of first time depression treatment utilization among adults with depressive disorders. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2012;47(10):1617–1625. doi: 10.1007/s00127-011-0465-6. PubMed DOI

Galbaud du Fort G, Newman S, Boothroyd L, Bland R. Treatment seeking for depression: role of depressive symptoms and comorbid psychiatric diagnoses. J Affect Disord. 1999;52(1):31–40. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(98)00052-4. PubMed DOI

Vesga-López O, Schneier F, Wang S, Heimberg R, Liu S-M, Hasin DS, et al. Gender differences in generalized anxiety disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcohol and related conditions (NESARC) J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(10):1606. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v69n1011. PubMed DOI PMC

Wallerblad A, Möller J, Forsell Y. Care-seeking pattern among persons with depression and anxiety: a population-based study in Sweden. Int J Family Med. 2012;2012:895425. doi: 10.1155/2012/895425. PubMed DOI PMC

Angst J, Gamma A, Clarke D, Ajdacic-Gross V, Rössler W, Regier D. Subjective distress predicts treatment seeking for depression, bipolar, anxiety, panic, neurasthenia and insomnia severity spectra. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2010;122(6):488–498. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01580.x. PubMed DOI

Andersson LM, Schierenbeck I, Strumpher J, Krantz G, Topper K, Backman G, et al. Help-seeking behaviour, barriers to care and experiences of care among persons with depression in eastern cape, South Africa. J Affect Disord. 2013;151(2):439–448. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.06.022. PubMed DOI

Hamalainen J, Isometsa E, Sihvo S, Pirkola S, Kiviruusu O. Use of health services for major depressive and anxiety disorders in Finland. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(1):27–37. doi: 10.1002/da.20256. PubMed DOI

ten Have M, de Graaf R, Vollebergh W, Beekman A. What depressive symptoms are associated with the use of care services?: results from the Netherlands mental health survey and incidence study (NEMESIS) J Affect Disord. 2004;80(2):239–248. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(03)00132-0. PubMed DOI

Mojtabai R, Olfson M. Treatment seeking for depression in Canada and the United States. Psychiatr Serv. 2006;57(5):631–639. doi: 10.1176/ps.2006.57.5.631. PubMed DOI

Sussman LK, Robins LN, Earls F. Treatment-seeking for depression by black and white Americans. Soc Sci Med. 1987;24(3):187–196. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(87)90046-3. PubMed DOI

Alegría M, Chatterji P, Wells K, Cao Z, Chen CN, Takeuchi D, et al. Disparity in depression treatment among racial and ethnic minority populations in the United States. Psychiatr Serv. 2008;59(11):1264–1272. doi: 10.1176/ps.2008.59.11.1264. PubMed DOI PMC

Keyes KM, Hatzenbuehler ML, Alberti P, Narrow WE, Grant BF, Hasin DS. Service utilization differences for Axis I psychiatric and substance use disorders between white and black adults. Psychiatr Serv. 2008;59(8):893–901. doi: 10.1176/ps.2008.59.8.893. PubMed DOI PMC

Bauldry S, Szaflarski M. Immigrant-based disparities in mental health care utilization. Socius. 2017;3:2378023116685718. PubMed PMC

Ault-Brutus AA. Changes in racial-ethnic disparities in use and adequacy of mental health care in the United States, 1990–2003. Psychiatr Serv. 2012;63(6):531–540. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.201000397. PubMed DOI

Lee SY, Martins SS, Keyes KM, Lee HB. Mental health service use by persons of Asian ancestry with DSM-IV mental disorders in the United States. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(10):1180–1186. doi: 10.1176/ps.62.10.pss6210_1180. PubMed DOI PMC

Lee SY, Xue Q-l, Spira AP, Lee HB. Racial and ethnic differences in depressive subtypes and access to mental health care in the United States. J Affect Disord. 2014;155:130–137. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.10.037. PubMed DOI

Ault-Brutus A, Alegria M. Racial/ethnic differences in perceived need for mental health care and disparities in use of care among those with perceived need in 1990–1992 and 2001–2003. Ethn Health. 2016;23(2):142-57. PubMed

Hankerson SH, Fenton MC, Geier TJ, Keyes KM, Weissman MM, Hasin DS. Racial differences in symptoms, comorbidity, and treatment for major depressive disorder among black and white adults. J Natl Med Assoc. 2011;103(7):576–584. doi: 10.1016/S0027-9684(15)30383-7. PubMed DOI PMC

Pirkis J, Burgess P, Meadows G, Dunt D. Access to Australian mental health care by people from non-English-speaking backgrounds. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2001;35(2):174–182. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1614.2001.00882.x. PubMed DOI

Chen L-Y, Crum RM, Martins SS, Kaufmann CN, Strain EC, Mojtabai R. Service use and barriers to mental health care among adults with major depression and comorbid substance dependence. Psychiatr Serv. 2013;64(9):863–870. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.201200289. PubMed DOI PMC

Robinson JA, Sareen J, Cox BJ, Bolton JM. Correlates of self-medication for anxiety disorders: results from the National Epidemiolgic Survey on alcohol and related conditions. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2009;3(12):873–878. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181c299c2. PubMed DOI

Bucholz KK, Dinwiddie SH. Influence of nondepressive psychiatric symptoms on whether patients tell a doctor about depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(5):640. doi: 10.1176/ajp.146.5.640. PubMed DOI

Vigod SN, Levitt AJ. Seasonal severity of depressive symptoms as a predictor of health service use in a community-based sample. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(5):612–618. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.10.004. PubMed DOI

Nakash O, Levav I, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Andrade LH, Angermeyer MC, et al. Comorbidity of common mental disorders with cancer and their treatment gap: findings from the world mental health surveys. Psycho-Oncology. 2014;23:40–51. doi: 10.1002/pon.3372. PubMed DOI PMC

Demyttenaere K, Bonnewyn A, Bruffaerts R, Brugha T, De Graaf R, Alonso J. Comorbid painful physical symptoms and depression: prevalence, work loss, and help seeking. J Affect Disord. 2006;92(2):185–193. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.007. PubMed DOI

Demyttenaere K, Bonnewyn A, Bruffaerts R, De Graaf R, Haro JM, Alonso J. Comorbid painful physical symptoms and anxiety: prevalence, work loss and help-seeking. J Affect Disord. 2008;109(3):264–272. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2007.12.231. PubMed DOI

Tempier R, Meadows GN, Vasiliadis H-M, Mosier KE, Lesage A, Stiller A, et al. Mental disorders and mental health care in Canada and Australia: comparative epidemiological findings. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2009;44(1):63–72. doi: 10.1007/s00127-008-0409-y. PubMed DOI

Tempier R, Vasiliadis H-M, Gilbert F, Demyttenaere K, Bruffaerts R, Lépine J-P, et al. Comparing mental health of francophones in Canada, France, and Belgium: 12-month and lifetime rates of mental health service use (part 2) Can J Psychiatry. 2010;55(5):295–304. doi: 10.1177/070674371005500505. PubMed DOI

Li W, Dorstyn DS, Denson LA. Predictors of mental health service use by young adults: a systematic review. Psychiatr Serv. 2016;67(9):946–956. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.201500280. PubMed DOI

Twomey CD, Baldwin DS, Hopfe M, Cieza A. A systematic review of the predictors of health service utilisation by adults with mental disorders in the UK. BMJ Open. 2015;5(7):e007575. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-007575. PubMed DOI PMC

Leaf PJ, Bruce ML, Tischler GL, Freeman DH, Jr, Weissman MM, Myers JK. Factors affecting the utilization of specialty and general medical mental health services. Med Care. 1988;26:9–26. doi: 10.1097/00005650-198801000-00002. PubMed DOI

Padgett D, Struening EL, Andrews H. Factors affecting the use of medical, mental health, alcohol, and drug treatment services by homeless adults. Med Care. 1990;28:805–821. doi: 10.1097/00005650-199009000-00010. PubMed DOI

Parslow RA, Jorm AF. Who uses mental health services in Australia? An analysis of data from the National Survey of mental health and wellbeing. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2000;34:997–1008. doi: 10.1080/000486700276. PubMed DOI

Graham A, Hasking P, Brooker J, Clarke D, Meadows G. Mental health service use among those with depression: an exploration using Andersen's behavioral model of health service use. J Affect Disord. 2017;208:170–176. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.074. PubMed DOI

Andrade LH, Alonso J, Mneimneh Z, Wells J, Al-Hamzawi A, Borges G, et al. Barriers to mental health treatment: results from the WHO world mental health surveys. Psychol Med. 2014;44(06):1303–1317. doi: 10.1017/S0033291713001943. PubMed DOI PMC

Olfson M, Marcus SC, Tedeschi M, Wan GJ. Continuity of antidepressant treatment for adults with depression in the United States. Am J Psychiatr. 2006;163(1):101–108. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.101. PubMed DOI

Baekeland F, Lundwall L. Dropping out of treatment: a critical review. Psychol Bull. 1975;82(5):738. doi: 10.1037/h0077132. PubMed DOI

Garfield SL. Research on client variables in psychotherapy. 1994.

Barrett MS, Chua W-J, Crits-Christoph P, Gibbons MB, Thompson D. Early withdrawal from mental health treatment: Implications for psychotherapy practice. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training. 2008;45(2):247. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.45.2.247. PubMed DOI PMC

Wierzbicki M, Pekarik G. A meta-analysis of psychotherapy dropout. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 1993;24(2):190.

Cohen A, Gilman SE, Houck PR, Szanto K, Reynolds CF. Socioeconomic status and anxiety as predictors of antidepressant treatment response and suicidal ideation in older adults. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2009;44(4):272. doi: 10.1007/s00127-008-0436-8. PubMed DOI PMC

Jain FA, Hunter AM, Brooks JO, Leuchter AF. Predictive socioeconomic and clinical profiles of antidepressant response and remission. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(7):624–630. doi: 10.1002/da.22045. PubMed DOI

Evans-Lacko S, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, Alonso J, Benjet C, Bruffaerts R, Chiu WT, Florescu S, de Girolamo G, Gureje O, Haro JM. Socio-economic variations in the mental health treatment gap for people with anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders: results from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Psychol Med. 2018;48(9):1560-71. PubMed PMC

Mechanic D. Is the prevalence of mental disorders a good measure of the need for services? Health Aff. 2003;22(5):8–20. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.22.5.8. PubMed DOI

Funk M, Saraceno B, Drew N, Lund C, Grigg M. Mental health policy and plans: promoting an optimal mix of services in developing countries. Int J Ment Health. 2004;33(2):4–16. doi: 10.1080/00207411.2004.11043367. DOI

Andrews G, Issakidis C, Carter G. Shortfall in mental health service utilisation. Br J Psychiatry. 2001;179(5):417–425. doi: 10.1192/bjp.179.5.417. PubMed DOI

Oliver A, Mossialos E. Equity of access to health care: outlining the foundations for action. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2004;58(8):655–658. doi: 10.1136/jech.2003.017731. PubMed DOI PMC

Hernandez M, Nesman T, Mowery D, Acevedo-Polakovich ID, Callejas LM. Cultural competence: a literature review and conceptual model for mental health services. Psychiatr Serv. 2009;60(8):1046–1050. doi: 10.1176/ps.2009.60.8.1046. PubMed DOI

Rochlen AB, Hoyer WD. Marketing mental health to men: theoretical and practical considerations. J Clin Psychol. 2005;61(6):675–684. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20102. PubMed DOI

Griner D, Smith TB. Culturally adapted mental health intervention: A meta-analytic review. Psychother Theory Res Pract Train. 2006;43(4):531. PubMed

Hammer JH, Vogel DL. Men’s help seeking for depression: the efficacy of a male-sensitive brochure about counseling. Couns Psychol. 2010;38(2):296–313. doi: 10.1177/0011000009351937. DOI

Fortney JC, Harman JS, Xu S, Dong F. The association between rural residence and the use, type, and quality of depression care. J Rural Health. 2010;26(3):205–213. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-0361.2010.00290.x. PubMed DOI

Thornicroft G, Tansella M. The balanced care model for global mental health. Psychol Med. 2013;43(4):849–863. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712001420. PubMed DOI

Settlement UNCfH. Urbanization: Facts and Figures 2001 [cited 2017 04/08/2017]. Available from: http://www.un.org/ga/Istanbul+5/bg10.htm.

Peters DH, Garg A, Bloom G, Walker DG, Brieger WR, Hafizur RM. Poverty and access to health care in developing countries. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1136(1):161–171. doi: 10.1196/annals.1425.011. PubMed DOI

Obrist B, Iteba N, Lengeler C, Makemba A, Mshana C, Nathan R, et al. Access to health care in contexts of livelihood insecurity: a framework for analysis and action. PLoS Med. 2007;4(10):e308. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040308. PubMed DOI PMC

Philo C. Across the water: reviewing geographical studies of asylums and other mental health facilities. Health Place. 1997;3(2):73–89. doi: 10.1016/S1353-8292(97)00002-6. PubMed DOI

Shannon GW, Bashshur RL, Lovett JE. Distance and the use of mental health services. The Milbank Quarterly. 1986:302–30. PubMed

Zulian G, Donisi V, Secco G, Pertile R, Tansella M, Amaddeo F. How are caseload and service utilisation of psychiatric services influenced by distance? A geographical approach to the study of community-based mental health services. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2011;46(9):881–891. doi: 10.1007/s00127-010-0257-4. PubMed DOI

Sohler KB, Clapis JA. Jarvis’ law and the planning of mental health services. HSMHA health reports. 1972;87(1):75. doi: 10.2307/4594430. PubMed DOI PMC

Davey S, Giles G. Spatial factors in mental health care in Tasmania. Soc Sci Med Med Geogr. 1979;13(2):87–94. PubMed

Hunter JM, Shannon GW, Sambrook SL. Rings of madness: service areas of 19th century asylums in North America. Soc Sci Med. 1986;23(10):1033–1050. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(86)90262-5. PubMed DOI

Contribution of severe mental disorders to fatally harmful effects of physical disorders: national cohort study

Two Waves of COVID-19 in University Setting: Mental Health and Underlying Risk Factors

Risk Factors Underlying COVID-19 Lockdown-Induced Mental Distress