Invasive alien species (IAS) are a growing global ecological problem. Reports on the socio-economic impacts of biological invasions are accumulating, but our understanding of temporal trends across regions and taxa remains scarce. Accordingly, we investigated temporal trends in the economic cost of IAS and cost-reporting literature using the InvaCost database and meta-regression modelling approaches. Overall, we found that both the cost reporting literature and monetary costs increased significantly over time at the global scale, but costs increased faster than reports. Differences in global trends suggest that cost literature has accumulated most rapidly in North America and Oceania, while monetary costs have exhibited the steepest increase in Oceania, followed by Europe, Africa and North America. Moreover, the costs for certain taxonomic groups were more prominent than others and the distribution also differed spatially, reflecting a potential lack of generality in cost-causing taxa and disparate patterns of cost reporting. With regard to global trends within the Animalia and Plantae kingdoms, costs for flatworms, mammals, flowering and vascular plants significantly increased. Our results highlight significantly increasing research interest and monetary impacts of biological invasions globally, but uncover key regional differences driven by variability in reporting of costs across countries and taxa. Our findings also suggest that regions which previously had lower research effort (e.g., Africa) exhibit rapidly increasing costs, comparable to regions historically at the forefront of invasion research. While these increases may be driven by specific countries within regions, we illustrate that even after accounting for research effort (cost reporting), costs of biological invasions are rising.

Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa Canada

Earth and Environmental Sciences Area Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley CA 94720 USA

GEOMAR Helmholtz Zentrum für Ozeanforschung Kiel Kiel 24105 Germany; School of Biological Sciences Queen's University Belfast Belfast BT9 5DL United Kingdom

Institute of Botany Czech Academy of Sciences CZ 252 43 Průhonice Czech Republic

Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum Frankfurt Department of River Ecology and Conservation Gelnhausen Germany; University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses Zátiší 728 2 389 25 Vodňany Czech Republic

Unité Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle Sorbonne Universités Université de Caen Normandie Université des Antilles CNRS IRD Paris France

Université Paris Saclay CNRS AgroParisTech Ecologie Systématique Evolution 91405 Orsay France

Université Paris Saclay CNRS AgroParisTech Ecologie Systématique Evolution 91405 Orsay France; Institute of Biology Freie Universität Berlin 14195 Berlin Germany; Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries 14195 Berlin Germany

University of Southern Denmark Department of Sociology Environmental and Business Economics 6705 Esbjerg Ø Denmark; Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters Hellenic Center for Marine Research Athens 164 52 Greece

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