The COVID-19 pandemic (and its aftermath) highlights a critical need to communicate health information effectively to the global public. Given that subtle differences in information framing can have meaningful effects on behavior, behavioral science research highlights a pressing question: Is it more effective to frame COVID-19 health messages in terms of potential losses (e.g., "If you do not practice these steps, you can endanger yourself and others") or potential gains (e.g., "If you practice these steps, you can protect yourself and others")? Collecting data in 48 languages from 15,929 participants in 84 countries, we experimentally tested the effects of message framing on COVID-19-related judgments, intentions, and feelings. Loss- (vs. gain-) framed messages increased self-reported anxiety among participants cross-nationally with little-to-no impact on policy attitudes, behavioral intentions, or information seeking relevant to pandemic risks. These results were consistent across 84 countries, three variations of the message framing wording, and 560 data processing and analytic choices. Thus, results provide an empirical answer to a global communication question and highlight the emotional toll of loss-framed messages. Critically, this work demonstrates the importance of considering unintended affective consequences when evaluating nudge-style interventions.

1st Department of Psychiatry Faculty of Medicine Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice Košice Slovakia

Adekunle Ajasin University Akungba Akoko Ondo State Nigeria

Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu Alike Abakaliki Nigeria

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Ankara Turkey

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Athens University of Economics and Business Athens Greece

Australian Catholic University Sydney Australia

Aventura Social and DESSH Faculty of Human Kinetics University of Lisbon Lisbon Portugal

Bangladesh Clinical Psychology Society Dhaka Bangladesh

Barakaldo Spain

Behavioural Science Institute Radboud University Nijmegen Netherlands

Black Dog Institute Sydney Australia

Bogotá Colombia

Busara Center for Behavioral Economics Nairobi Kenya

Business Administration Department Ankara Science University Ankara Turkey

Cal Poly Humboldt Arcata USA

California State University Northridge USA

Calleva Research Centre for Evolution and Human Sciences Magdalen College Oxford UK

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Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest Bucharest Romania

Center for Psychology at University of Porto University of Porto Porto Portugal

Center for Research on Cognition and Behavior SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sopot Sopot Poland

Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford USA

Center for Translational Behavioral Science Florida State University Tallahassee USA

Centre for Affective Disorders Institute of Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience King's College London London UK

Centre for Healthy Ageing Health Futures Institute Murdoch University Perth Australia

Centre of Attachment and Emotional Regulation Faculty of Psychology Universidad del Desarrollo Santiago Chile

Centre of Language Evolution Studies Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń Toruń Poland

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Chinese Center of Disease Prevention and Control Beijing China

Claremont Graduate University Claremont USA

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Departamento de Psicología Laboratorio de Estrés y Salud Universidad de La Frontera Temuco Chile

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The Psychological Science Accelerator's COVID-19 rapid-response dataset

Replicating the Disease framing problem during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic: A study of stress, worry, trust, and choice under risk