The Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalaya (HKH) mountain ranges are the sources of Asia's most important river systems, which provide fresh water to 1.4 billion inhabitants in the region. Environmental and socioeconomic conditions are affected in many ways by climate change. Globally, climate change has received widespread attention, especially regarding seasonal and annual temperatures. Snow cover is vulnerable to climate warming, particularly temperature variations. By employing Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) datasets and observed data, this study investigated the seasonal and interannual variability using snow cover, vegetation and land surface temperature (LST), and their spatial and temporal trend on different elevations from 2001 to 2020 in these variables in Gilgit Baltistan (GB), northern Pakistan. The study region was categorized into five elevation zones extending from < 2000 to > 7000 masl. Non-parametric Mann-Kendall trend tests and Sen's slope estimates indicate snow cover increases throughout the winter, but decreases significantly between June and July. In contrast, GB has an overall increasing annual LST trend. Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) reveals a significant positive relationship between vegetation and LST (PCC = 0.73) and a significant negative relationship between LST and snow cover (PCC = - 0.74), and vegetation and snow cover (PCC = - 0.78). Observed temperature data and MODIS LST have a coefficient of determination greater than 0.59. Snow cover decreases at 3000-2000 masl elevations while increases at higher 5000 masl elevations.The vegetation in low and mid-elevation < 4000 masl zones decreases significantly annually. The temperature shows a sharply increasing trend at lower 2000-3000 masl elevations in the autumn, indicating the shifting of the winter seasons at this elevation zone. These findings better explain the spatiotemporal variations in snow cover, vegetation, and LST at various elevation zones and the interactions between these parameters at various elevations across the HKH region.

Department of Environmental Sciences COMSATS University Islamabad Abbottabad Campus Abbottabad 22060 Pakistan

Department of Water Resources Faculty of Agrobiology Food and Natural Resources Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Kamýcká 129 165 00 Praha 6 Suchdol Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Geography University of Bremen 28359 Bremen Germany

Key Laboratory of Geographical Processes and Ecological Security of Changbai Mountains Ministry of Education School of Geographical Sciences Northeast Normal University Changchun People's Republic of China

Research Center for Ecology and Environment in Central Asia Chinese Academy of Sciences Urumqi 830011 China

State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography Chinese Academy of Sciences Xinjiang 830011 Urumqi China

Tianshan Station for Snow Cover and Avalanche Research Chinese Academy of Sciences Xinyuan 835800 China

University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100049 China

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