Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a chronic, irreversible lung disease that is typically fatal and characterized by an abnormal fibrotic response. As a result, vast areas of the lungs are gradually affected, and gas exchange is impaired, making it one of the world's leading causes of death. This can be attributed to a lack of understanding of the onset and progression of the disease, as well as a poor understanding of the mechanism of adverse responses to various factors, such as exposure to allergens, nanomaterials, environmental pollutants, etc. So far, the most frequently used preclinical evaluation paradigm for PF is still animal testing. Nonetheless, there is an urgent need to understand the factors that induce PF and find novel therapeutic targets for PF in humans. In this regard, robust and realistic in vitro fibrosis models are required to understand the mechanism of adverse responses. Over the years, several in vitro and ex vivo models have been developed with the goal of mimicking the biological barriers of the lung as closely as possible. This review summarizes recent progress towards the development of experimental models suitable for predicting fibrotic responses, with an emphasis on cell culture methods, nanomaterials, and a comparison of results from studies using cells from various species.

Adolphe Merkle Institute University of Fribourg Chemin des Verdiers 4 Fribourg CH 1700 Switzerland

Adolphe Merkle Institute University of Fribourg Chemin des Verdiers 4 Fribourg CH 1700 Switzerland; Chemistry Department University of Fribourg Chemin du Musée 9 Fribourg 1700 Switzerland

Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences Videnska 1083 Prague 14220 Czech Republic

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