OBJECTIVES: During the covid-19 pandemic, protective equipment such as respirators and masks were widely used to protect respiratory tract. This disposable protective equipment is usually made from plastic fibre-based nonwoven fabrics. If used masks and respirators are improperly discarded, they pollute the environment by becoming a source of micro and nanoplastics. The aim of the study was to find out how stable the materials of protective equipment are and how released nano and microplastics can affect aquatic and soil organisms. MATERIALS: The input materials used to produce respirators and masks were tested for their thermal stability and resistance to the release of plastic particles into the environment. To determine the thermal stability of the materials, a simultaneous thermal analysis - thermogravimetry (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were performed. RESULTS: Materials of masks and respirators are stable at temperatures common to temperate climate zone. However, the possible effects of chemical reactions of the materials with the environment were not considered during the measurement. The materials were also subjected to ecotoxicity tests according to European standards. CONCLUSION: While the leachate obtained by shaking the materials in water did not show acute toxicity to the selected aquatic organisms, the material itself had a significant effect on selected soil organisms (springtails).

Department of Occupational Health and Safety Faculty of Safety Engineering VSB Technical University of Ostrava Ostrava Czech Republic

Research Institute of Occupational Safety Prague Czech Republic

State Office for Nuclear Safety Prague Czech Republic

See more in PubMed

de Souza Machado AA, Kloas W, Zarfl C, Hempel S, Rillig MC. Microplastics as an emerging threat to terrestrial ecosystems. Glob Chang Biol. 2018 Apr;24(4):1405-16. DOI

Zhang Y, Kang S, Allen S, Allen D, Gao T, Sillanpää M. Atmospheric microplastics: a review on current status and perspectives. Earth Sci Rev. 2020;203:103118. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103118. DOI

Wayman C, Niemann H. The fate of plastic in the ocean environment - a minireview. Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2021 Mar 4;23(2):198-212. DOI

Rillig MC, Lehmann A. Microplastic in terrestrial ecosystems. Science. 2020 Jun 26;368(6498):1430-1. DOI

de Souza Machado AA, Lau CW, Kloas W, Bergmann J, Bachelier JB, Faltin E, et al. Microplastics can change soil properties and affect plant performance. Environ Sci Technol. 2019 May 21;53(10):6044-52. DOI

Maity S, Pramanick K. Perspectives and challenges of micro/nanoplastics-induced toxicity with special reference to phytotoxicity. Glob Chang Biol. 2020 Jun;26(6):3241-50. DOI

Eriksen M, Lebreton LC, Carson HS, Thiel M, Moore CJ, Borerro JC, et al. Plastic pollution in the world's oceans: more than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS One. 2014 Dec 10;9(12):e111913. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111913. PubMed DOI

Bergmann M, Gutow L, Klages M, editors. Marine anthropogenic litter. New York, NY: Springer International Publishing; 2015. DOI

Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler TR, Perryman M, Andrady A, et al. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science. 2015 Feb 13;347(6223):768-71. DOI

de Souza Machado AA, Lau CW, Till J, Kloas W, Lehmann A, Becker R, et al. Impacts of microplastics on the soil biophysical environment. Environ Sci Technol. 2018 Sep 4;52(17):9656-65. DOI

Liang Y, Lehmann A, Ballhausen MB, Muller L, Rillig MC. Increasing temperature and microplastic fibers jointly influence soil aggregation by saprobic fungi. Front Microbiol. 2019 Sep 6;10:2018. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02018. PubMed DOI

Gaylor MO, Harvey E, Hale RC. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) accumulation by earthworms (Eisenia fetida) exposed to biosolids-, polyurethane foam microparticle-, and Penta-BDE-amended soils. Environ Sci Technol. 2013 Dec 3;47(23):13831-9.

Rodriguez-Seijo A, Lourenço J, Rocha-Santos TAP, da Costa J, Duarte AC, Vala H, et al. Histopathological and molecular effects of microplastics in Eisenia andrei Bouché. Environ Pollut. 2017 Jan;220(Pt A):495-503. DOI

Yong CQY, Valiyaveettil S, Tang BL. Toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics in mammalian systems. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Feb 26;17(5):1509. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17051509. PubMed DOI

Karbalaei S, Hanachi P, Walker TR, Cole M. Occurrence, sources, human health impacts and mitigation of microplastic pollution. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018 Dec;25(36):36046-63.

Nechvátal M, Klouda K. [Microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment]. Čas JOSRA [Internet]. 2021;14(4). Available from: https://www.bozpinfo.cz/josra/mikroplasty-nanoplasty-v-zivotnim-prostredi. Czech.

Kwak JI, Liu H, Wang D, Lee YH, Lee JS, An YJ. Critical review of environmental impacts of microfibers in different environmental matrices. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 2022 Jan;251:109196. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109196. PubMed DOI

Sullivan GL, Delgado-Gallardo J, Watson TM, Sarp S. An investigation into the leaching of micro and nano particles and chemical pollutants from disposable face masks - linked to the COVID-19 pandemic. Water Res. 2021 May 15;196:117033. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117033. PubMed DOI

Mao N. Nonwoven fabric filters. In: Kellie G, editor. Advances in technical nonwovens. Duxford: Woodhead Publishing; 2016. p. 273-310.

Roupcová P, Kubátová H, Bátrlová K, Klouda K. Nanotextiles - materials suitable for protection of the respiratory tract and simultaneously a source of nano- and microplastic particles in the environment. Acta Chim Slovaca. 2022;15(1):44-53. DOI

EN 12457-4. Characterisation of waste - Leaching - Compliance test for leaching of granular waste materials and sludges - Part 4: One stage batch test at a liquid to solid ratio of 10 I/kg for materials with particle size below 10 mm (without or with size reduction). Brussels: European Committee for Standardization; 2002.

Yang X, Li S, Yao Y, Zhao J, Zhu Z, Chai C. Preparation and characterization of polypropylene non-woven fabric/ZIF-8 composite film for efficient oil/water separation. Polym Test. 2021;100:107263. doi: 10.1016/j.polymertesting.2021.107263. DOI

Jemec Kokalj A, Dolar A, Drobne D, Marinšek M, Dolenec M, Škrlep L, et al. Environmental hazard of polypropylene microplastics from disposable medical masks: acute toxicity towards Daphnia magna and current knowledge on other polypropylene microplastics. Microplast nanoplast. 2022;2(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s43591-021-00020-0. PubMed DOI

Ju H, Zhu D, Qiao M. Effects of polyethylene microplastics on the gut microbial community, reproduction and avoidance behaviors of the soil springtail, Folsomia candida. Environ Pollut. 2019 Apr;247:890-7. DOI

Amobonye A, Bhagwat P, Raveendran S, Singh S, Pillai S. Environmental impacts of microplastics and nanoplastics: a current overview. Front Microbiol. 2021 Dec 15;12:768297. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.768297. PubMed DOI