Non-native pests, climate change, and their interactions are likely to alter relationships between trees and tree-associated organisms with consequences for forest health. To understand and predict such changes, factors structuring tree-associated communities need to be determined. Here, we analysed the data consisting of records of insects and fungi collected from dormant twigs from 155 tree species at 51 botanical gardens or arboreta in 32 countries. Generalized dissimilarity models revealed similar relative importance of studied climatic, host-related and geographic factors on differences in tree-associated communities. Mean annual temperature, phylogenetic distance between hosts and geographic distance between locations were the major drivers of dissimilarities. The increasing importance of high temperatures on differences in studied communities indicate that climate change could affect tree-associated organisms directly and indirectly through host range shifts. Insect and fungal communities were more similar between closely related vs. distant hosts suggesting that host range shifts may facilitate the emergence of new pests. Moreover, dissimilarities among tree-associated communities increased with geographic distance indicating that human-mediated transport may serve as a pathway of the introductions of new pests. The results of this study highlight the need to limit the establishment of tree pests and increase the resilience of forest ecosystems to changes in climate.

Agriculture Victoria Research Agribio Centre Bundoora Vic Australia

Biotechnical Faculty University of Montenegro Podgorica Montenegro

CABI Beijing China

CABI Delémont Switzerland

Central Siberian Botanical Garden Russian Academy of Sciences Siberian Branch Novosibirsk Russia

College of Forestry and Biotechnology Zhejiang A and F University Hangzhou China

Croatian Forest Research Institute Jastrebarsko Croatia

D B Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens GA USA

Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine Dublin Ireland

Department of Environmental Biology Sapienza University of Rome Rome Italy

Department of Forest Ecosystems Protection University of Agriculture in Krakow Krakow Poland

Department of Forest Protection Forest Research Institute University of Sopron Mátrafüred Hungary

Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation Clemson University Clemson SC USA

Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark

Department of Plant Breeding Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Alnarp Sweden

Department of Vegetal Production and Forest Resources University of Valladolid Palencia Spain

DIBAF University of Tuscia Viterbo Italy

Faculty of Forestry Çankırı Karatekin University Cankiri Turkey

Fera Science Ltd National Agri food Innovation Campus York UK

Forest Research Institute Hellenic Agricultural Organization Demeter Thessaloniki Greece

Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Forestry and Wood Technology Linnaeus University Växjö Sweden

GREEN IT Bioresources for Sustainability ITQB NOVA Oeiras Portugal

INRAE URZF Orléans France

Institute of Agricultural Sciences ETH Zürich Zürich Switzerland

Institute of Botany at the Nature Research Centre Vilnius Lithuania

Institute of Forest Ecology Slovak Academy of Sciences Nitra Slovakia

Institute of Forestry and Engineering Estonian University of Life Sciences Tartu Estonia

Institute of Lowland Forestry and Environment University of Novi Sad Novi Sad Serbia

Institute of Plant Sciences University of Bern Bern Switzerland

Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems ETH Zürich Zürich Switzerland

Instituto de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias Bariloche Bariloche Argentina

Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária 1 P Oeiras Portugal

Isparta University of Applied Sciences Isparta Turkey

Jastrebarsko Croatia

Meise Botanic Garden Meise Belgium

Murdoch University Perth Australia

National Forest Centre Forest Research Institute Zvolen Slovakia

National Plant Protection Organisation Netherlands Food and Consumers Product Safety Authority Ministry of Agriculture Nature and Food Quality Wageningen The Netherlands

National Research Council C N R Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection Sesto Fiorentino Italy

National Research Institute of Rural Engineering Water and Forests Ariana Tunisia

Natural Resources Institute Finland Suonenjoki Finland

NIBIO Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research Ås Norway

NMBU Norwegian University of Life Sciences Ås Norway

Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria Melbourne Vic Australia

School of Applied Systems Biology La Trobe University Melbourne Vic Australia

Siberian Federal University Krasnoyarsk Russia

Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and Ornamental Gardening Pruhonice Czech Republic

Slovenian Forestry Institute Ljubljana Slovenia

Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Alnarp Sweden

Sukachev Institute of Forest Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Federal Research Center Krasnoyarsk Science Center SB RAS Krasnoyarsk Russia

Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute University of Valladolid INIA Palencia Spain

Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL Birmensdorf Switzerland

Tanzania Forestry Research Institute Lushoto Tanzania

Ukrainian National Forestry University Lviv Ukraine

Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Melioration Kharkiv Ukraine

Ukrainian Research Institute of Mountain Forestry Ivano Frankivsk Ukraine

USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station Athens GA USA

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