This systematic review examines the potential of digital language learning in contributing to students' cognitive gains. The study reviews existing research on the relationship between digital language learning and cognitive benefits, with a focus on enhanced problem-solving skills, memory, and multitasking ability. The research questions explored in this study are (1) does digital language learning contribute to cognitive gains in foreign language education? and (2) what are the pedagogical implications for cognitive improvement in digital foreign language education? The study employs the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology to identify and analyze relevant research articles. The results of the review suggest that working with printed texts may be more effective for cognitive gains compared to electronic texts. Additionally, implementing more senses through digital language education appears to be beneficial for cognitive gains. Thus, several pedagogical implications emerge for promoting cognitive improvement in digital foreign language education. Firstly, it is crucial to implement techniques and strategies that best align with students' language needs in a digital learning environment, whether it involves pen-and-paper activities or a flipped classroom approach. Secondly, exposing students to a variety of techniques that engage multiple senses can have a positive impact on cognitive gains. Finally, providing students with feedback is essential to maintain their motivation and foster continued progress in their foreign language studies.

Department of Applied Linguistics Faculty of Informatics and Management University of Hradec Kralove 500 03 Hradec Kralove Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Poláková P., Klímová B. Vocabulary mobile learning application in blended English language learning. Front. Psychol. 2022;13:869055. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.869055. PubMed DOI PMC

Zhang C. The advantages and disadvantages of learning a second language early. Adv. Soc. Sci. Educ. Humanit. Res. 2021;631:32–37.

Klimova B., Pikhart M. Current research on the impact of foreign language learning among healthy seniors on their cognitive functions from a positive psychology perspective—A systematic review. Front. Psychol. 2020;11:765. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00765. PubMed DOI PMC

Cao J., Bhuvaneswari G., Arumugam T., Aravind B.R. The digital edge: Examining the relationship between digital competency and language learning outcomes. Front. Psychol. 2023;14:1187909. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1187909. PubMed DOI PMC

Park J. Vocabulary learning through a daily task of cooking in the digital kitchen. Lang. Learn. Technol. 2022;26:1–22.

Shafiee Rad H., Roohani A., Rahimi Domakani M. Flipping EFL learners’ writing classroom through role-reversal and discussion-oriented models. Lang. Learn. Technol. 2021;25:158–177.

Yang J., Yin C.X., Wang W. Flipping the classroom in teaching Chinese as a foreign language. Lang. Learn. Technol. 2018;22:16–26.

Peterson M., White J., Mirzaei M.S., Wang Q. A review of research on the application of digital games in foreign language education. In: Kruk M., Peterson M., editors. New Technological Applications for Foreign and Second Language Learning and Teaching. IGI Global; Hershey, PA, USA: 2020. pp. 69–92. DOI

Klimova B., Kacetl J. Efficacy of computer games on language learning. TOJET. 2017;16:19–26.

Di Giacomo D., Ranieri J., Lacasa P. Digital learning as enhanced learning processing? Cognitive evidence for new insight of smart learning. Front. Psychol. 2017;8:1329. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01329. PubMed DOI PMC

Klimova B. Are there any cognitive benefits of computer-based foreign language training for healthy elderly people?—A mini-review. Front. Psychol. 2021;11:573287. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573287. PubMed DOI PMC

Bećirović S., Brdarević-Čeljo A., Delić H. The use of digital technology in foreign language learning. SN Soc. Sci. 2021;1:246. doi: 10.1007/s43545-021-00254-y. PubMed DOI PMC

Haleem A., Javaid M., Qadri M.A., Suman R. Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: A review. Sustain. Oper. Comput. 2022;3:275–285. doi: 10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004. DOI

Bancha W., Tongtep N. Enhancing vocabulary memorization and retention through LMS and MultiEx game platforms among Thai tertiary students. Int. J. Learn. Teach. Educ. Res. 2021;20:173–192. doi: 10.26803/ijlter.20.10.10. DOI

Lai J.W.M., De Nobile J., Bower M., Breyer Y. Comprehensive evaluation of the use of technology in education—Validation with a cohort of global open online learners. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2022;27:9877–9911. doi: 10.1007/s10639-022-10986-w. PubMed DOI PMC

Ng D.T.K., Leung J.K.L., Su J., Ng R.C.W., Chu S.K.W. Teachers’ AI digital competencies and twenty-first century skills in the post-pandemic world. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 2023;71:137–161. doi: 10.1007/s11423-023-10203-6. PubMed DOI PMC

Gherheș V., Stoian C.E., Fărcașiu M.A., Stanici M. E-learning vs. face-to-face learning: Analyzing students’ preferences and behaviors. Sustainability. 2021;13:4381. doi: 10.3390/su13084381. DOI

Zamborová K., Stefanutti I., Klimová B. CercleS survey: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on foreign language teaching in Higher education. Lang. Learn. High. Educ. 2021;11:269–283. doi: 10.1515/cercles-2021-2032. DOI

Saarinen A., Lipsanen J., Hintsanen M., Huotilainen M., Keltikangas-Järvinen L. The use of digital technologies at school and cognitive learning outcomes: A population-based study in Finland. Int. J. Educ. Psychol. 2021;10:1–26. doi: 10.17583/ijep.2021.4667. DOI

Page M.J., McKenzie J.E., Bossuyt P.M., Boutron I., Hoffmann T.C., Mulrow C.D., Shamseer L., Tetzlaff J.M., Akl E.A., Brennan S.E., et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71. PubMed DOI PMC

Chiu L.L., Liu G.Z. Effects of printed, pocket electronic, and online dictionaries on high school students’ English vocabulary retention. Asia-Pac. Edu. Res. 2013;22:619–634. doi: 10.1007/s40299-013-0065-1. DOI

Mangen A., Anda L.G., Oxborough G.H., Brřnnick K. Handwriting versus keyboard writing: Effect on word recall. J. Writ. Res. 2015;7:227–247. doi: 10.17239/jowr-2015.07.02.1. DOI

Pikhart M., Klimova B., Ruschel F.B. Foreign language vocabulary acquisition and retention in print text vs. digital media environments. Systems. 2023;11:30. doi: 10.3390/systems11010030. DOI

Roussel S., Galan J.P. Can clicker use support learning in a dual-focused second language German course? Lang. Learn. Technol. 2018;22:45–64.

Liao S., Kruger J., Doherty S. The impact of monolingual and bilingual subtitles on visual attention, cognitive load, and comprehension. J. Spec. Transl. 2020;33:70–98.

Umejima K., Ibaraki T., Yamazaki T., Sakai K.L. Paper notebooks vs. mobile devices: Brain activation differences during memory retrieval. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2021;15:634158. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.634158. PubMed DOI PMC

Vnucko G., Klimova B. Exploring the potential of digital game-based vocabulary learning: A systematic review. Systems. 2023;11:57. doi: 10.3390/systems11020057. DOI

Huang S., Willson V., Eslami Z. The effects of task involvement load on L2 Incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analytic study. Mod. Lang. J. 2012;96:544–557. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.2012.01394.x. DOI

Li Z., Li J. Using the flipped classroom to promote learner engagement for the sustainable development of language skills: A mixed-methods study. Sustainability. 2022;14:5983. doi: 10.3390/su14105983. DOI

Öztürk M., Çakıroğlu Ü. Flipped learning design in EFL classrooms: Implementing self-regulated learning strategies to develop language skills. Smart Learn. Environ. 2021;8:2. doi: 10.1186/s40561-021-00146-x. DOI

Cornillie F., Clarebout G., Desmet P. The role of feedback in foreign language learning through digital role-playing games. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2012;34:49–53. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.02.011. DOI

Klimova B., Pikhart M. Application of corrective feedback using emerging technologies among L2 university students. Cogent Educ. 2022;9:2132681. doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2022.2132681. DOI

Aldhafeeri F.M., Alotaibi A.A. Effectiveness of digital education shifting model on high school students’ engagement. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2022;27:6869–6891. doi: 10.1007/s10639-021-10879-4. PubMed DOI PMC