The human microbiota is a complex ecosystem that colonizes body surfaces and interacts with host organ systems, especially the immune system. Since the composition of this ecosystem depends on a variety of internal and external factors, each individual harbors a unique set of microbes. These differences in microbiota composition make individuals either more or less susceptible to various diseases, including cancer. Specific microbes are associated with cancer etiology and pathogenesis and several mechanisms of how they drive the typical hallmarks of cancer were recently identified. Although most microbes reside in the distal gut, they can influence cancer initiation and progression in distant tissues, as well as modulate the outcomes of established cancer therapies. Here, we describe the mechanisms by which microbes influence carcinogenesis and discuss their current and potential future applications in cancer diagnostics and management.

Department of Oncology 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University Prague and General University Hospital Prague Prague Czech Republic

Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology Institute of Microbiology v v i Czech Academy of Sciences Vídeňská 1083 142 00 Prague 4 Krč Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Abrams GD, Bauer H, Sprinz H. Influence of the normal flora on mucosal morphology and cellular renewal in the ileum. A comparison of germ-free and conventional mice. Lab Invest. 1963;12:355–364. PubMed

Akazawa Y, Cazanave S, Mott JL, et al. Palmitoleate attenuates palmitate-induced Bim and PUMA up-regulation and hepatocyte lipoapoptosis. J Hepatol. 2010;52(4):586–593. PubMed PMC

Alexander JL, Wilson ID, Teare J, et al. Gut microbiota modulation of chemotherapy efficacy and toxicity. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;14(6):356–365. PubMed

Alpdundar Bulut E, Bayyurt Kocabas B, Yazar V, et al. Human gut commensal membrane vesicles modulate inflammation by generating M2-like macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. J Immunol. 2020;205(10):2707–2718. PubMed

Al-Sabbagh R, Sinicrope FA, Sellin JH, et al. Evaluation of short-chain fatty acid enemas: treatment of radiation proctitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1996;91(9):1814–1816. PubMed

Arpaia N, Campbell C, Fan X, et al. Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation. Nature. 2013;504(7480):451–455. PubMed PMC

Auchtung TA, Fofanova TY, Stewart CJ, et al. Investigating colonization of the healthy adult gastrointestinal tract by fungi. mSphere. 2018 doi: 10.1128/mSphere.00092-18. PubMed DOI PMC

Aviello G, Knaus UG. ROS in gastrointestinal inflammation: rescue or sabotage? Br J Pharmacol. 2017;174(12):1704–1718. PubMed PMC

Badoual C, Hans S, Rodriguez J, et al. Prognostic value of tumor-infiltrating CD4+ T-cell subpopulations in head and neck cancers. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(2):465–472. PubMed

Bajer L, Kverka M, Kostovcik M, et al. Distinct gut microbiota profiles in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis and ulcerative colitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2017;23(25):4548–4558. PubMed PMC

Balachandran VP, Luksza M, Zhao JN, et al. Identification of unique neoantigen qualities in long-term survivors of pancreatic cancer. Nature. 2017;551(7681):512–516. PubMed PMC

Balmer ML, Ma EH, Thompson AJ, et al. Memory CD8(+) T cells balance pro- and anti-inflammatory activity by reprogramming cellular acetate handling at sites of infection. Cell Metab. 2020;32(3):457–467 e455. PubMed

Baruch EN, Youngster I, Ben-Betzalel G, et al. Fecal microbiota transplant promotes response in immunotherapy-refractory melanoma patients. Science. 2021;371(6529):602–609. PubMed

Bayik D, Tross D, Haile LA, et al. Regulation of the maturation of human monocytes into immunosuppressive macrophages. Blood Adv. 2017;1(26):2510–2519. PubMed PMC

Belkaid Y, Bouladoux N, Hand TW. Effector and memory T cell responses to commensal bacteria. Trends Immunol. 2013;34(6):299–306. PubMed PMC

Berg RD, Garlington AW. Translocation of certain indigenous bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract to the mesenteric lymph nodes and other organs in a gnotobiotic mouse model. Infect Immun. 1979;23(2):403–411. PubMed PMC

Bergounioux J, Elisee R, Prunier AL, et al. Calpain activation by the Shigella flexneri effector VirA regulates key steps in the formation and life of the bacterium's epithelial niche. Cell Host Microbe. 2012;11(3):240–252. PubMed

Bertocchi A, Carloni S, Ravenda PS, et al. Gut vascular barrier impairment leads to intestinal bacteria dissemination and colorectal cancer metastasis to liver. Cancer Cell. 2021;39(5):708–724. PubMed

Boesch M, Baty F, Rothschild SI, et al. Tumour neoantigen mimicry by microbial species in cancer immunotherapy. Br J Cancer. 2021;125(3):313–323. PubMed PMC

Broderick NA, Buchon N, Lemaitre B. Microbiota-induced changes in drosophila melanogaster host gene expression and gut morphology. Mbio. 2014;5(3):e01117–e11114. PubMed PMC

Buchta Rosean C, Bostic RR, Ferey JCM, et al. Preexisting commensal dysbiosis is a host-intrinsic regulator of tissue inflammation and tumor cell dissemination in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. Cancer Res. 2019;79(14):3662–3675. PubMed PMC

Camarillo-Guerrero LF, Almeida A, Rangel-Pineros G, et al. Massive expansion of human gut bacteriophage diversity. Cell. 2021;184(4):1098–1109 e1099. PubMed PMC

Cani PD, Jordan BF. Gut microbiota-mediated inflammation in obesity: a link with gastrointestinal cancer. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;15(11):671–682. PubMed

Castellarin M, Warren RL, Freeman JD, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma. Genome Res. 2012;22(2):299–306. PubMed PMC

Chaput N, Lepage P, Coutzac C, et al. Baseline gut microbiota predicts clinical response and colitis in metastatic melanoma patients treated with ipilimumab. Ann Oncol. 2017;28(6):1368–1379. PubMed

Chen W, Jin W, Hardegen N, et al. Conversion of peripheral CD4+CD25- naive T cells to CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells by TGF-beta induction of transcription factor Foxp3. J Exp Med. 2003;198(12):1875–1886. PubMed PMC

Chen S, Su T, Zhang Y, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum promotes colorectal cancer metastasis by modulating KRT7-AS/KRT7. Gut Microbes. 2020;11(3):511–525. PubMed PMC

Chen Y, Qiu X, Wang W, et al. Human papillomavirus infection and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia progression are associated with increased vaginal microbiome diversity in a Chinese cohort. BMC Infect Dis. 2020;20(1):629. PubMed PMC

Chen Z, Wang B, Dong J, et al. Gut microbiota-derived l-histidine/imidazole propionate axis fights against the radiation-induced cardiopulmonary injury. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(21):11436. PubMed PMC

Chronopoulos A, Kalluri R. Emerging role of bacterial extracellular vesicles in cancer. Oncogene. 2020;39(46):6951–6960. PubMed PMC

Clark NM, Martinez LM, Murdock S, et al. Regulatory T cells support breast cancer progression by opposing IFN-gamma-dependent functional reprogramming of myeloid cells. Cell Rep. 2020;33(10):108482. PubMed PMC

Comerford SA, Huang Z, Du X, et al. Acetate dependence of tumors. Cell. 2014;159(7):1591–1602. PubMed PMC

Copland A, Sparrow A, Hart P, et al. Bacillus Calmette-Guerin induces PD-L1 expression on antigen-presenting cells via autocrine and paracrine interleukin-STAT3 circuits. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):3655. PubMed PMC

Coutzac C, Jouniaux JM, Paci A, et al. Systemic short chain fatty acids limit antitumor effect of CTLA-4 blockade in hosts with cancer. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):2168. PubMed PMC

Curiel TJ, Coukos G, Zou L, et al. Specific recruitment of regulatory T cells in ovarian carcinoma fosters immune privilege and predicts reduced survival. Nat Med. 2004;10(9):942–949. PubMed

Curtis H, et al. Human microbiome project C: structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature. 2012;486(7402):207–214. PubMed PMC

Dai Z, Coker OO, Nakatsu G, et al. Multi-cohort analysis of colorectal cancer metagenome identified altered bacteria across populations and universal bacterial markers. Microbiome. 2018;6(1):70. PubMed PMC

Dalmasso G, Cougnoux A, Delmas J, et al. The bacterial genotoxin colibactin promotes colon tumor growth by modifying the tumor microenvironment. Gut Microbes. 2014;5(5):675–680. PubMed PMC

Davar D, Dzutsev AK, McCulloch JA, et al. Fecal microbiota transplant overcomes resistance to anti-PD-1 therapy in melanoma patients. Science. 2021;371(6529):595–602. PubMed PMC

David LA, Maurice CF, Carmody RN, et al. Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome. Nature. 2014;505(7484):559–563. PubMed PMC

Deleemans JM, Chleilat F, Reimer RA, et al. The chemo-gut study: investigating the long-term effects of chemotherapy on gut microbiota, metabolic, immune, psychological and cognitive parameters in young adult Cancer survivors; study protocol. BMC Cancer. 2019;19(1):1243. PubMed PMC

Denton AS, Andreyev HJ, Forbes A, et al. Systematic review for non-surgical interventions for the management of late radiation proctitis. Br J Cancer. 2002;87(2):134–143. PubMed PMC

Derosa L, Hellmann MD, Spaziano M, et al. Negative association of antibiotics on clinical activity of immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with advanced renal cell and non-small-cell lung cancer. Ann Oncol. 2018;29(6):1437–1444. PubMed PMC

Derosa L, Routy B, Thomas AM, et al. Intestinal Akkermansia muciniphila predicts clinical response to PD-1 blockade in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. Nat Med. 2022;28(2):315–324. PubMed PMC

Ding X, Li Q, Li P, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation: a promising treatment for radiation enteritis? Radiother Oncol. 2020;143:12–18. PubMed

Doll R, Peto R. The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1981;66(6):1191–1308. PubMed

Donohoe DR, Collins LB, Wali A, et al. The Warburg effect dictates the mechanism of butyrate-mediated histone acetylation and cell proliferation. Mol Cell. 2012;48(4):612–626. PubMed PMC

Dubin K, Callahan MK, Ren B, et al. Intestinal microbiome analyses identify melanoma patients at risk for checkpoint-blockade-induced colitis. Nat Commun. 2016;7:10391. PubMed PMC

Dziubanska-Kusibab PJ, Berger H, Battistini F, et al. Colibactin DNA-damage signature indicates mutational impact in colorectal cancer. Nat Med. 2020;26(7):1063–1069. PubMed

Elkrief A, Derosa L, Kroemer G, et al. The negative impact of antibiotics on outcomes in cancer patients treated with immunotherapy: a new independent prognostic factor? Ann Oncol. 2019;30(10):1572–1579. PubMed

Ellingjord-Dale M, Christakoudi S, Weiderpass E, et al. Long-term weight change and risk of breast cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study. Int J Epidemiol. 2021 doi: 10.1093/ije/dyab032. PubMed DOI PMC

Ewaschuk JB, Diaz H, Meddings L, et al. Secreted bioactive factors from Bifidobacterium infantis enhance epithelial cell barrier function. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2008;295(5):G1025–1034. PubMed

Fabrega MJ, Aguilera L, Gimenez R, et al. Activation of immune and defense responses in the intestinal mucosa by outer membrane vesicles of commensal and probiotic Escherichia coli strains. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:705. PubMed PMC

Ferreira MR, Sands CJ, Li JV, et al. Impact of pelvic radiation therapy for prostate cancer on global metabolic profiles and microbiota-driven gastrointestinal late side effects: a longitudinal observational study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2021;111(5):1204–1213. PubMed PMC

Flanagan L, Schmid J, Ebert M, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum associates with stages of colorectal neoplasia development, colorectal cancer and disease outcome. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014;33(8):1381–1390. PubMed

Flores R, Zhong G. The chlamydia pneumoniae inclusion membrane protein Cpn1027 interacts with host cell Wnt signaling pathway regulator cytoplasmic activation/proliferation-associated protein 2 (Caprin2) PLoS ONE. 2015;10(5):e0127909. PubMed PMC

Flores R, Shi J, Fuhrman B, et al. Fecal microbial determinants of fecal and systemic estrogens and estrogen metabolites: a cross-sectional study. J Transl Med. 2012;10:253. PubMed PMC

Fonseca DM, Hand TW, Han SJ, et al. Microbiota-dependent sequelae of acute infection compromise tissue-specific immunity. Cell. 2015;163(2):354–366. PubMed PMC

Frankel AE, Coughlin LA, Kim J, et al. Metagenomic shotgun sequencing and unbiased metabolomic profiling identify specific human gut microbiota and metabolites associated with immune checkpoint therapy efficacy in melanoma patients. Neoplasia. 2017;19(10):848–855. PubMed PMC

Fung TC, Bessman NJ, Hepworth MR, et al. Lymphoid-tissue-resident commensal bacteria promote members of the IL-10 cytokine family to establish mutualism. Immunity. 2016;44(3):634–646. PubMed PMC

Furusawa Y, Obata Y, Fukuda S, et al. Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells. Nature. 2013;504(7480):446–450. PubMed

Gabrilovich DI, Nagaraj S. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells as regulators of the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2009;9(3):162–174. PubMed PMC

Galvao-Moreira LV, da Cruz MC. Oral microbiome, periodontitis and risk of head and neck cancer. Oral Oncol. 2016;53:17–19. PubMed

Geng F, Liu J, Guo Y, et al. Persistent exposure to porphyromonas gingivalis promotes proliferative and invasion capabilities, and tumorigenic properties of human immortalized oral epithelial cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2017;7:57. PubMed PMC

Goedert JJ, Jones G, Hua X, et al. Investigation of the association between the fecal microbiota and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: a population-based case-control pilot study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2015 doi: 10.1093/jnci/djv147. PubMed DOI PMC

Gopalakrishnan V, Spencer CN, Nezi L, et al. Gut microbiome modulates response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in melanoma patients. Science. 2018;359(6371):97–103. PubMed PMC

Griffin ME, Espinosa J, Becker JL, et al. Enterococcus peptidoglycan remodeling promotes checkpoint inhibitor cancer immunotherapy. Science. 2021;373(6558):1040–1046. PubMed PMC

Guo S, Chen J, Chen F, et al. Exosomes derived from Fusobacterium nucleatum-infected colorectal cancer cells facilitate tumour metastasis by selectively carrying miR-1246/92b-3p/27a-3p and CXCL16. Gut. 2020 doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-321187. PubMed DOI

Gupta VK, Paul S, Dutta C. Geography, ethnicity or subsistence-specific variations in human microbiome composition and diversity. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:1162. PubMed PMC

Gur C, Ibrahim Y, Isaacson B, et al. Binding of the Fap2 protein of Fusobacterium nucleatum to human inhibitory receptor TIGIT protects tumors from immune cell attack. Immunity. 2015;42(2):344–355. PubMed PMC

Gur C, Maalouf N, Shhadeh A, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum supresses anti-tumor immunity by activating CEACAM1. Oncoimmunology. 2019;8(6):e1581531. PubMed PMC

Haghi F, Goli E, Mirzaei B, et al. The association between fecal enterotoxigenic B. fragilis with colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer. 2019;19(1):879. PubMed PMC

Han T, Hu X, Li K, et al. Bifidobacterium infantis maintains genome stability in ulcerative colitis via regulating anaphase-promoting complex subunit 7. Front Microbiol. 2021;12:761113. PubMed PMC

Hanahan D. Hallmarks of cancer: new dimensions. Cancer Discov. 2022;12(1):31–46. PubMed

Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell. 2011;144(5):646–674. PubMed

Hansen CH, Nielsen DS, Kverka M, et al. Patterns of early gut colonization shape future immune responses of the host. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(3):e34043. PubMed PMC

Hapfelmeier S, Lawson MA, Slack E, et al. Reversible microbial colonization of germ-free mice reveals the dynamics of IgA immune responses. Science. 2010;328(5986):1705–1709. PubMed PMC

Harusato A, Viennois E, Etienne-Mesmin L, et al. Early-life microbiota exposure restricts myeloid-derived suppressor cell-driven colonic tumorigenesis. Cancer Immunol Res. 2019;7(4):544–551. PubMed PMC

Hayes MA. Chronic ulcerative colitis and associated carcinoma. Am J Surg. 1949;77(3):363–370. PubMed

He Z, Gharaibeh RZ, Newsome RC, et al. Campylobacter jejuni promotes colorectal tumorigenesis through the action of cytolethal distending toxin. Gut. 2019;68(2):289–300. PubMed PMC

He Y, Fu L, Li Y, et al. Gut microbial metabolites facilitate anticancer therapy efficacy by modulating cytotoxic CD8(+) T cell immunity. Cell Metab. 2021;33(5):988–1000 e1007. PubMed

Hegazy AN, West NR, Stubbington MJT, et al. Circulating and tissue-resident CD4(+) T cells with reactivity to intestinal microbiota are abundant in healthy individuals and function is altered during inflammation. Gastroenterology. 2017;153(5):1320–1337 e1316. PubMed PMC

Hieken TJ, Chen J, Hoskin TL, et al. The microbiome of aseptically collected human breast tissue in benign and malignant disease. Sci Rep. 2016;6:30751. PubMed PMC

Hirano T. IL-6 in inflammation, autoimmunity and cancer. Int Immunol. 2021;33(3):127–148. PubMed PMC

Hoffmann C, Dollive S, Grunberg S, et al. Archaea and fungi of the human gut microbiome: correlations with diet and bacterial residents. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(6):e66019. PubMed PMC

Holdbrooks AT, Britain CM, Bellis SL. ST6Gal-I sialyltransferase promotes tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-mediated cancer cell survival via sialylation of the TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) death receptor. J Biol Chem. 2018;293(5):1610–1622. PubMed PMC

Holokai L, Chakrabarti J, Broda T, et al. Increased programmed death-ligand 1 is an early epithelial cell response to helicobacter pylori infection. PLoS Pathog. 2019;15(1):e1007468. PubMed PMC

Hu B, Elinav E, Huber S, et al. Microbiota-induced activation of epithelial IL-6 signaling links inflammasome-driven inflammation with transmissible cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013;110(24):9862–9867. PubMed PMC

Huang Y, Yang W, Liu H, et al. Effect of high-dose methotrexate chemotherapy on intestinal Bifidobacteria, Lactobacillus and Escherichia coli in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Exp Biol Med (maywood) 2012;237(3):305–311. PubMed

Huang Z, Wang J, Xu X, et al. Antibody neutralization of microbiota-derived circulating peptidoglycan dampens inflammation and ameliorates autoimmunity. Nat Microbiol. 2019;4(5):766–773. PubMed

IARC . IARC: biological agents, vol 100. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.

IARC . IARC: RED meat and processed meat, vol 114. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2018. PubMed

Ibrahim-Hashim A, Estrella V. Acidosis and cancer: from mechanism to neutralization. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2019;38(1–2):149–155. PubMed PMC

Iida N, Dzutsev A, Stewart CA, et al. Commensal bacteria control cancer response to therapy by modulating the tumor microenvironment. Science. 2013;342(6161):967–970. PubMed PMC

Inaba H, Sugita H, Kuboniwa M, et al. Porphyromonas gingivalis promotes invasion of oral squamous cell carcinoma through induction of proMMP9 and its activation. Cell Microbiol. 2014;16(1):131–145. PubMed PMC

Jackson DN, Theiss AL. Gut bacteria signaling to mitochondria in intestinal inflammation and cancer. Gut Microbes. 2020;11(3):285–304. PubMed PMC

Jakubowska K, Pryczynicz A, Januszewska J, et al. Expressions of matrix metalloproteinases 2, 7, and 9 in carcinogenesis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Dis Markers. 2016;2016:9895721. PubMed PMC

Jang BS, Chang JH, Chie EK, et al. Gut microbiome composition is associated with a pathologic response after preoperative chemoradiation in patients with rectal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2020;107(4):736–746. PubMed

Jia X, Lu S, Zeng Z, et al. Characterization of gut microbiota, bile acid metabolism, and cytokines in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Hepatology. 2020;71(3):893–906. PubMed

Jin Y, Dong H, Xia L, et al. The diversity of gut microbiome is associated with favorable responses to anti-programmed death 1 immunotherapy in Chinese patients with NSCLC. J Thorac Oncol. 2019;14(8):1378–1389. PubMed

Kadosh E, Snir-Alkalay I, Venkatachalam A, et al. The gut microbiome switches mutant p53 from tumour-suppressive to oncogenic. Nature. 2020;586(7827):133–138. PubMed PMC

Kalkeri R, Walters K, Van Der Pol W, et al. Changes in the gut microbiome community of nonhuman primates following radiation injury. BMC Microbiol. 2021;21(1):93. PubMed PMC

Katayama Y, Yamada T, Shimamoto T, et al. The role of the gut microbiome on the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in Japanese responder patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Transl Lung Cancer Res. 2019;8(6):847–853. PubMed PMC

Kim YS, Kim J, Park SJ. High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing reveals alterations of mouse intestinal microbiota after radiotherapy. Anaerobe. 2015;33:1–7. PubMed

Kim IY, Kwon HY, Park KH, et al. Anaphase-promoting complex 7 is a prognostic factor in human colorectal cancer. Ann Coloproctol. 2017;33(4):139–145. PubMed PMC

Kim OY, Park HT, Dinh NTH, et al. Bacterial outer membrane vesicles suppress tumor by interferon-gamma-mediated antitumor response. Nat Commun. 2017;8(1):626. PubMed PMC

Kim JY, Whon TW, Lim MY, et al. The human gut archaeome: identification of diverse haloarchaea in Korean subjects. Microbiome. 2020;8(1):114. PubMed PMC

Kindt A, Liebisch G, Clavel T, et al. The gut microbiota promotes hepatic fatty acid desaturation and elongation in mice. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):3760. PubMed PMC

Klimesova K, Kverka M, Zakostelska Z, et al. Altered gut microbiota promotes colitis-associated cancer in IL-1 receptor-associated kinase M-deficient mice. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2013;19(6):1266–1277. PubMed PMC

Komorowski AS, Pezo RC. Untapped “-omics”: the microbial metagenome, estrobolome, and their influence on the development of breast cancer and response to treatment. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2020;179(2):287–300. PubMed

Kostic AD, Chun E, Robertson L, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum potentiates intestinal tumorigenesis and modulates the tumor-immune microenvironment. Cell Host Microbe. 2013;14(2):207–215. PubMed PMC

Krausova M, Korinek V. Wnt signaling in adult intestinal stem cells and cancer. Cell Signal. 2014;26(3):570–579. PubMed

Kuen DS, Kim BS, Chung Y. IL-17-producing cells in tumor immunity: friends or foes? Immune Netw. 2020;20(1):e6. PubMed PMC

Kulkarni AA, Ebadi M, Zhang S, et al. Comparative analysis of antibiotic exposure association with clinical outcomes of chemotherapy versus immunotherapy across three tumour types. ESMO Open. 2020;5(5):e000803. PubMed PMC

Kverka M, Tlaskalova-Hogenova H. Intestinal microbiota: facts and fiction. Dig Dis. 2017;35(1–2):139–147. PubMed

Kwon SK, Park JC, Kim KH, et al. Human gastric microbiota transplantation recapitulates premalignant lesions in germ-free mice. Gut. 2021 doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2021-324489. PubMed DOI

Lanca T, Silva-Santos B. The split nature of tumor-infiltrating leukocytes: Implications for cancer surveillance and immunotherapy. Oncoimmunology. 2012;1(5):717–725. PubMed PMC

Laniewski P, Ilhan ZE, Herbst-Kralovetz MM. The microbiome and gynaecological cancer development, prevention and therapy. Nat Rev Urol. 2020;17(4):232–250. PubMed PMC

Lazar V, Ditu LM, Pircalabioru GG, et al. Aspects of gut microbiota and immune system interactions in infectious diseases, immunopathology, and cancer. Front Immunol. 1830;9:1830. PubMed PMC

Lee HS, Boulton IC, Reddin K, et al. Neisserial outer membrane vesicles bind the coinhibitory receptor carcinoembryonic antigen-related cellular adhesion molecule 1 and suppress CD4+ T lymphocyte function. Infect Immun. 2007;75(9):4449–4455. PubMed PMC

Levy M, Kolodziejczyk AA, Thaiss CA, et al. Dysbiosis and the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2017;17(4):219–232. PubMed

Li B, Vincent A, Cates J, et al. Low levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha increase tumor growth by inducing an endothelial phenotype of monocytes recruited to the tumor site. Cancer Res. 2009;69(1):338–348. PubMed PMC

Li X, Chen Y, Qi H, et al. Synonymous mutations in oncogenesis and apoptosis versus survival unveiled by network modeling. Oncotarget. 2016;7(23):34599–34616. PubMed PMC

Li H, Boakye D, Chen X, et al. Association of body mass index with risk of early-onset colorectal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2021;116(11):2173–2183. PubMed PMC

Limeta A, Ji B, Levin M, et al. Meta-analysis of the gut microbiota in predicting response to cancer immunotherapy in metastatic melanoma. JCI Insight. 2020 doi: 10.1172/jci.insight.140940. PubMed DOI PMC

Lin LY, Du LM, Cao K, et al. Tumour cell-derived exosomes endow mesenchymal stromal cells with tumour-promotion capabilities. Oncogene. 2016;35(46):6038–6042. PubMed PMC

Lin S, Li Y, Zamyatnin AA, Jr, et al. Reactive oxygen species and colorectal cancer. J Cell Physiol. 2018;233(7):5119–5132. PubMed

Liu J, Zhang N, Li Q, et al. Tumor-associated macrophages recruit CCR6+ regulatory T cells and promote the development of colorectal cancer via enhancing CCL20 production in mice. PLoS ONE. 2011;6(4):e19495. PubMed PMC

Liu C, Chikina M, Deshpande R, et al. Treg cells promote the SREBP1-dependent metabolic fitness of tumor-promoting macrophages via repression of CD8(+) T cell-derived interferon-gamma. Immunity. 2019;51(2):381–397 e386. PubMed PMC

Liu F, Li J, Guan Y, et al. Dysbiosis of the gut microbiome is associated with tumor biomarkers in lung cancer. Int J Biol Sci. 2019;15(11):2381–2392. PubMed PMC

Liu J, Liu C, Yue J. Radiotherapy and the gut microbiome: facts and fiction. Radiat Oncol. 2021;16(1):9. PubMed PMC

Lombardo E, Alvarez-Barrientos A, Maroto B, et al. TLR4-mediated survival of macrophages is MyD88 dependent and requires TNF-alpha autocrine signalling. J Immunol. 2007;178(6):3731–3739. PubMed

Lu H, Wang Q, Liu W, et al. Precision strategies for cancer treatment by modifying the tumor-related bacteria. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2021;105(16–17):6183–6197. PubMed

Ma C, Han M, Heinrich B, et al. Gut microbiome-mediated bile acid metabolism regulates liver cancer via NKT cells. Science. 2018 doi: 10.1126/science.aan5931. PubMed DOI PMC

Macpherson AJ, Uhr T. Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria. Science. 2004;303(5664):1662–1665. PubMed

Mager LF, Burkhard R, Pett N, et al. Microbiome-derived inosine modulates response to checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy. Science. 2020;369(6510):1481–1489. PubMed

Maisonneuve C, Tsang DKL, Foerster EG, et al. Nod1 promotes colorectal carcinogenesis by regulating the immunosuppressive functions of tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells. Cell Rep. 2021;34(4):108677. PubMed

Marques-Fernandez F, Planells-Ferrer L, Gozzelino R, et al. TNFalpha induces survival through the FLIP-L-dependent activation of the MAPK/ERK pathway. Cell Death Dis. 2013;4:e493. PubMed PMC

Marshall BJ, Warren JR. Unidentified curved bacilli in the stomach of patients with gastritis and peptic ulceration. Lancet. 1984;1(8390):1311–1315. PubMed

Marzec M, Zhang Q, Goradia A, et al. Oncogenic kinase NPM/ALK induces through STAT3 expression of immunosuppressive protein CD274 (PD-L1, B7–H1) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105(52):20852–20857. PubMed PMC

Mathiasen SL, Gall-Mas L, Pateras IS, et al. Bacterial genotoxins induce T cell senescence. Cell Rep. 2021;35(10):109220. PubMed

Matson V, Fessler J, Bao R, et al. The commensal microbiome is associated with anti-PD-1 efficacy in metastatic melanoma patients. Science. 2018;359(6371):104–108. PubMed PMC

Matsukawa H, Iida N, Kitamura K, et al. Dysbiotic gut microbiota in pancreatic cancer patients form correlation networks with the oral microbiota and prognostic factors. Am J Cancer Res. 2021;11(6):3163–3175. PubMed PMC

Miao R, Badger TC, Groesch K, et al. Assessment of peritoneal microbial features and tumor marker levels as potential diagnostic tools for ovarian cancer. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(1):e0227707. PubMed PMC

Michaud DS, Lu J, Peacock-Villada AY, et al. Periodontal disease assessed using clinical dental measurements and cancer risk in the ARIC study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2018;110(8):843–854. PubMed PMC

Michels KB. The role of nutrition in cancer development and prevention. Int J Cancer. 2005;114(2):163–165. PubMed

Mima K, Sukawa Y, Nishihara R, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum and T cells in colorectal carcinoma. JAMA Oncol. 2015;1(5):653–661. PubMed PMC

Mima K, Nishihara R, Qian ZR, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum in colorectal carcinoma tissue and patient prognosis. Gut. 2016;65(12):1973–1980. PubMed PMC

Mira-Pascual L, Cabrera-Rubio R, Ocon S, et al. Microbial mucosal colonic shifts associated with the development of colorectal cancer reveal the presence of different bacterial and archaeal biomarkers. J Gastroenterol. 2015;50(2):167–179. PubMed

Mitra A, MacIntyre DA, Lee YS, et al. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia disease progression is associated with increased vaginal microbiome diversity. Sci Rep. 2015;5:16865. PubMed PMC

Mitra A, MacIntyre DA, Ntritsos G, et al. The vaginal microbiota associates with the regression of untreated cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2 lesions. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1999. PubMed PMC

Montassier E, Gastinne T, Vangay P, et al. Chemotherapy-driven dysbiosis in the intestinal microbiome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;42(5):515–528. PubMed

Morgillo F, Dallio M, Della Corte CM, et al. Carcinogenesis as a result of multiple inflammatory and oxidative hits: a comprehensive review from tumor microenvironment to gut microbiota. Neoplasia. 2018;20(7):721–733. PubMed PMC

Morikawa A, Kawabata A, Shirahige K, et al. Altered cervicovaginal microbiota in premenopausal ovarian cancer patients. Gene. 2022;811:146083. PubMed

Morton AM, Sefik E, Upadhyay R, et al. Endoscopic photoconversion reveals unexpectedly broad leukocyte trafficking to and from the gut. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(18):6696–6701. PubMed PMC

Muegge BD, Kuczynski J, Knights D, et al. Diet drives convergence in gut microbiome functions across mammalian phylogeny and within humans. Science. 2011;332(6032):970–974. PubMed PMC

Nam YD, Kim HJ, Seo JG, et al. Impact of pelvic radiotherapy on gut microbiota of gynecological cancer patients revealed by massive pyrosequencing. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(12):e82659. PubMed PMC

Nejman D, Livyatan I, Fuks G, et al. The human tumor microbiome is composed of tumor type-specific intracellular bacteria. Science. 2020;368(6494):973–980. PubMed PMC

Nenclares P, Bhide SA, Sandoval-Insausti H, et al. Impact of antibiotic use during curative treatment of locally advanced head and neck cancers with chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Eur J Cancer. 2020;131:9–15. PubMed

Nene NR, Reisel D, Leimbach A, et al. Association between the cervicovaginal microbiome, BRCA1 mutation status, and risk of ovarian cancer: a case-control study. Lancet Oncol. 2019;20(8):1171–1182. PubMed

Nigro G, Rossi R, Commere PH, et al. The cytosolic bacterial peptidoglycan sensor Nod2 affords stem cell protection and links microbes to gut epithelial regeneration. Cell Host Microbe. 2014;15(6):792–798. PubMed

Norenhag J, Du J, Olovsson M, et al. The vaginal microbiota, human papillomavirus and cervical dysplasia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. BJOG. 2020;127(2):171–180. PubMed

Numasaki M, Fukushi J, Ono M, et al. Interleukin-17 promotes angiogenesis and tumor growth. Blood. 2003;101(7):2620–2627. PubMed

Obregon-Tito AJ, Tito RY, Metcalf J, et al. Subsistence strategies in traditional societies distinguish gut microbiomes. Nat Commun. 2015;6:6505. PubMed PMC

Ohue Y, Nishikawa H. Regulatory T (Treg) cells in cancer: can Treg cells be a new therapeutic target? Cancer Sci. 2019;110(7):2080–2089. PubMed PMC

Okita Y, Koi M, Takeda K, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum infection correlates with two types of microsatellite alterations in colorectal cancer and triggers DNA damage. Gut Pathog. 2020;12:46. PubMed PMC

Park J, Lee SE, Hur J, et al. M-CSF from cancer cells induces fatty acid synthase and PPARbeta/delta activation in tumor myeloid cells leading to tumor progression. Cell Rep. 2015;10(9):1614–1625. PubMed

Pender SL, Tickle SP, Docherty AJ, et al. A major role for matrix metalloproteinases in T cell injury in the gut. J Immunol. 1997;158(4):1582–1590. PubMed

Perez PF, Dore J, Leclerc M, et al. Bacterial imprinting of the neonatal immune system: lessons from maternal cells? Pediatrics. 2007;119(3):e724–732. PubMed

Pernigoni N, Zagato E, Calcinotto A, et al. Commensal bacteria promote endocrine resistance in prostate cancer through androgen biosynthesis. Science. 2021;374(6564):216–224. PubMed

Perrone F, Belluomini L, Mazzotta M, et al. Exploring the role of respiratory microbiome in lung cancer: a systematic review. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2021;164:103404. PubMed

Pomares Bascunana RA, Veses V, Sheth CC. Effectiveness of fecal microbiota transplant for the treatment of Clostridioides difficile diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2021;73(2):149–158. PubMed

Ponziani FR, Bhoori S, Castelli C, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma is associated with gut microbiota profile and inflammation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology. 2019;69(1):107–120. PubMed

Qi X, Yun C, Pang Y, et al. The impact of the gut microbiota on the reproductive and metabolic endocrine system. Gut Microbes. 2021;13(1):1–21. PubMed PMC

Qin J, Li R, Raes J, et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464(7285):59–65. PubMed PMC

Ray D, Kidane D. Gut microbiota imbalance and base excision repair dynamics in colon cancer. J Cancer. 2016;7(11):1421–1430. PubMed PMC

Rebe C, Ghiringhelli F. Interleukin-1beta and cancer. Cancers (basel) 2020;12(7):1791. PubMed PMC

Reddy BS, MacFie J, Gatt M, et al. Commensal bacteria do translocate across the intestinal barrier in surgical patients. Clin Nutr. 2007;26(2):208–215. PubMed

Rescigno M, Urbano M, Valzasina B, et al. Dendritic cells express tight junction proteins and penetrate gut epithelial monolayers to sample bacteria. Nat Immunol. 2001;2(4):361–367. PubMed

Rey C, Chang YY, Latour-Lambert P, et al. Transcytosis subversion by M cell-to-enterocyte spread promotes Shigella flexneri and Listeria monocytogenes intracellular bacterial dissemination. PLoS Pathog. 2020;16(4):e1008446. PubMed PMC

Ridlon JM, Wolf PG, Gaskins HR. Taurocholic acid metabolism by gut microbes and colon cancer. Gut Microbes. 2016;7(3):201–215. PubMed PMC

Rios-Covian D, Ruas-Madiedo P, Margolles A, et al. Intestinal short chain fatty acids and their link with diet and human health. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:185. PubMed PMC

Rogan MR, Patterson LL, Wang JY, et al. Bacterial manipulation of Wnt signaling: a host-pathogen Tug-of-Wnt. Front Immunol. 2019;10:2390. PubMed PMC

Roquilly A, Jacqueline C, Davieau M, et al. Alveolar macrophages are epigenetically altered after inflammation, leading to long-term lung immunoparalysis. Nat Immunol. 2020;21(6):636–648. PubMed

Round JL, Mazmanian SK. The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2009;9(5):313–323. PubMed PMC

Routy B, Le Chatelier E, Derosa L, et al. Gut microbiome influences efficacy of PD-1-based immunotherapy against epithelial tumors. Science. 2018;359(6371):91–97. PubMed

Rutkowski MR, Stephen TL, Svoronos N, et al. Microbially driven TLR5-dependent signaling governs distal malignant progression through tumor-promoting inflammation. Cancer Cell. 2015;27(1):27–40. PubMed PMC

Salgia NJ, Bergerot PG, Maia MC, et al. Stool microbiome profiling of patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma receiving anti-PD-1 immune checkpoint inhibitors. Eur Urol. 2020;78(4):498–502. PubMed

Schirbel A, Kessler S, Rieder F, et al. Pro-angiogenic activity of TLRs and NLRs: a novel link between gut microbiota and intestinal angiogenesis. Gastroenterology. 2013;144(3):613–623 e619. PubMed PMC

Schwabe RF, Jobin C. The microbiome and cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2013;13(11):800–812. PubMed PMC

Scott TA, Quintaneiro LM, Norvaisas P, et al. Host-microbe co-metabolism dictates cancer drug efficacy in C. elegans. Cell. 2017;169(3):442–456 e418. PubMed PMC

Sheng Y, Li F, Qin Z. TNF receptor 2 makes tumor necrosis factor a friend of tumors. Front Immunol. 2018;9:1170. PubMed PMC

Sica A, Mantovani A. Macrophage plasticity and polarization: in vivo veritas. J Clin Invest. 2012;122(3):787–795. PubMed PMC

Sica A, Schioppa T, Mantovani A, et al. Tumour-associated macrophages are a distinct M2 polarised population promoting tumour progression: potential targets of anti-cancer therapy. Eur J Cancer. 2006;42(6):717–727. PubMed

Sims TT, El Alam MB, Karpinets TV, et al. Gut microbiome diversity is an independent predictor of survival in cervical cancer patients receiving chemoradiation. Commun Biol. 2021;4(1):237. PubMed PMC

Sivan A, Corrales L, Hubert N, et al. Commensal Bifidobacterium promotes antitumor immunity and facilitates anti-PD-L1 efficacy. Science. 2015;350(6264):1084–1089. PubMed PMC

Slots J, Bragd L, Wikstrom M, et al. The occurrence of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Bacteroides gingivalis and Bacteroides intermedius in destructive periodontal disease in adults. J Clin Periodontol. 1986;13(6):570–577. PubMed

Sobko T, Reinders CI, Jansson E, et al. Gastrointestinal bacteria generate nitric oxide from nitrate and nitrite. Nitric Oxide. 2005;13(4):272–278. PubMed

Sommer F, Nookaew I, Sommer N, et al. Site-specific programming of the host epithelial transcriptome by the gut microbiota. Genome Biol. 2015;16:62. PubMed PMC

Song X, Gao H, Lin Y, et al. Alterations in the microbiota drive interleukin-17C production from intestinal epithelial cells to promote tumorigenesis. Immunity. 2014;40(1):140–152. PubMed

Song X, Xin N, Wang W, et al. Wnt/beta-catenin, an oncogenic pathway targeted by H. pylori in gastric carcinogenesis. Oncotarget. 2015;6(34):35579–35588. PubMed PMC

Song P, Yang D, Wang H, et al. Relationship between intestinal flora structure and metabolite analysis and immunotherapy efficacy in Chinese NSCLC patients. Thorac Cancer. 2020;11(6):1621–1632. PubMed PMC

Sorbara MT, Pamer EG. Interbacterial mechanisms of colonization resistance and the strategies pathogens use to overcome them. Mucosal Immunol. 2019;12(1):1–9. PubMed PMC

Spencer CN, McQuade JL, Gopalakrishnan V, et al. Dietary fiber and probiotics influence the gut microbiome and melanoma immunotherapy response. Science. 2021;374(6575):1632–1640. PubMed PMC

Stappenbeck TS, Hooper LV, Gordon JI. Developmental regulation of intestinal angiogenesis by indigenous microbes via Paneth cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99(24):15451–15455. PubMed PMC

Sun L, Yang S, Deng Q, et al. Salmonella effector SpvB disrupts intestinal epithelial barrier integrity for bacterial translocation. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:606541. PubMed PMC

Takiishi T, Fenero CIM, Camara NOS. Intestinal barrier and gut microbiota: shaping our immune responses throughout life. Tissue Barriers. 2017;5(4):e1373208. PubMed PMC

Tanoue T, Morita S, Plichta DR, et al. A defined commensal consortium elicits CD8 T cells and anti-cancer immunity. Nature. 2019;565(7741):600–605. PubMed

Tchakarska G, Sola B. The double dealing of cyclin D1. Cell Cycle. 2020;19(2):163–178. PubMed PMC

Tezal M, Sullivan MA, Hyland A, et al. Chronic periodontitis and the incidence of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18(9):2406–2412. PubMed

Thaiss CA, Zeevi D, Levy M, et al. Transkingdom control of microbiota diurnal oscillations promotes metabolic homeostasis. Cell. 2014;159(3):514–529. PubMed

Tiffany CR, Baumler AJ. Dysbiosis: from fiction to function. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2019;317(5):G602–G608. PubMed PMC

Togo A, Dufour JC, Lagier JC, et al. Repertoire of human breast and milk microbiota: a systematic review. Future Microbiol. 2019;14:623–641. PubMed

Tonneau M, Elkrief A, Pasquier D, et al. The role of the gut microbiome on radiation therapy efficacy and gastrointestinal complications: a systematic review. Radiother Oncol. 2021;156:1–9. PubMed

Tremblay W, Mompart F, Lopez E, et al. Cytolethal distending toxin promotes replicative stress leading to genetic instability transmitted to daughter cells. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2021;9:656795. PubMed PMC

Urbaniak C, Gloor GB, Brackstone M, et al. The microbiota of breast tissue and its association with breast cancer. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2016;82(16):5039–5048. PubMed PMC

Uribe-Herranz M, Rafail S, Beghi S, et al. Gut microbiota modulate dendritic cell antigen presentation and radiotherapy-induced antitumor immune response. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(1):466–479. PubMed PMC

van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M, et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(5):407–415. PubMed

Veettil SK, Wong TY, Loo YS, et al. Role of diet in colorectal cancer incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(2):e2037341. PubMed PMC

Vetizou M, Pitt JM, Daillere R, et al. Anticancer immunotherapy by CTLA-4 blockade relies on the gut microbiota. Science. 2015;350(6264):1079–1084. PubMed PMC

Viaud S, Saccheri F, Mignot G, et al. The intestinal microbiota modulates the anticancer immune effects of cyclophosphamide. Science. 2013;342(6161):971–976. PubMed PMC

Viennois E, Merlin D, Gewirtz AT, et al. Dietary emulsifier-induced low-grade inflammation promotes colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 2017;77(1):27–40. PubMed PMC

Vitali F, Colucci R, Di Paola M, et al. Early melanoma invasivity correlates with gut fungal and bacterial profiles. Br J Dermatol. 2022;186(1):106–116. PubMed PMC

Wang Y, Kuang Z, Yu X, et al. The intestinal microbiota regulates body composition through NFIL3 and the circadian clock. Science. 2017;357(6354):912–916. PubMed PMC

Wang T, Fan C, Yao A, et al. The adaptor protein CARD9 protects against colon cancer by restricting mycobiota-mediated expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Immunity. 2018;49(3):504–514 e504. PubMed PMC

Warburg O. On the origin of cancer cells. Science. 1956;123(3191):309–314. PubMed

Watson RW, Rotstein OD, Parodo J, et al. The IL-1 beta-converting enzyme (caspase-1) inhibits apoptosis of inflammatory neutrophils through activation of IL-1 beta. J Immunol. 1998;161(2):957–962. PubMed

Wei LH, Kuo ML, Chen CA, et al. The anti-apoptotic role of interleukin-6 in human cervical cancer is mediated by up-regulation of Mcl-1 through a PI 3-K/Akt pathway. Oncogene. 2001;20(41):5799–5809. PubMed

Wei Z, Cao S, Liu S, et al. Could gut microbiota serve as prognostic biomarker associated with colorectal cancer patients' survival? A pilot study on relevant mechanism. Oncotarget. 2016;7(29):46158–46172. PubMed PMC

Wikoff WR, Anfora AT, Liu J, et al. Metabolomics analysis reveals large effects of gut microflora on mammalian blood metabolites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2009;106(10):3698–3703. PubMed PMC

Winter J, Letley D, Rhead J, et al. Helicobacter pylori membrane vesicles stimulate innate pro- and anti-inflammatory responses and induce apoptosis in Jurkat T cells. Infect Immun. 2014;82(4):1372–1381. PubMed PMC

Wroblewski LE, Peek RM, Jr, Wilson KT. Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: factors that modulate disease risk. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(4):713–739. PubMed PMC

Wu S, Morin PJ, Maouyo D, et al. Bacteroides fragilis enterotoxin induces c-Myc expression and cellular proliferation. Gastroenterology. 2003;124(2):392–400. PubMed

Wu S, Rhee KJ, Albesiano E, et al. A human colonic commensal promotes colon tumorigenesis via activation of T helper type 17 T cell responses. Nat Med. 2009;15(9):1016–1022. PubMed PMC

Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, et al. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science. 2011;334(6052):105–108. PubMed PMC

Xiao L, Zhang Q, Peng Y, et al. The effect of periodontal bacteria infection on incidence and prognosis of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (baltimore) 2020;99(15):e19698. PubMed PMC

Xiao HW, Cui M, Li Y, et al. Gut microbiota-derived indole 3-propionic acid protects against radiation toxicity via retaining acyl-CoA-binding protein. Microbiome. 2020;8(1):69. PubMed PMC

Xu J, Peng JJ, Yang W, et al. Vaginal microbiomes and ovarian cancer: a review. Am J Cancer Res. 2020;10(3):743–756. PubMed PMC

Yang Y, Weng W, Peng J, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum increases proliferation of colorectal cancer cells and tumor development in mice by activating toll-like receptor 4 Signaling to nuclear factor-kappaB, and up-regulating expression of MicroRNA-21. Gastroenterology. 2017;152(4):851–866 e824. PubMed PMC

Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature. 2012;486(7402):222–227. PubMed PMC

Ying S, Zeng DN, Chi L, et al. The influence of age and gender on skin-associated microbial communities in urban and rural human populations. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(10):e0141842. PubMed PMC

Yu T, Guo F, Yu Y, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum promotes chemoresistance to colorectal cancer by modulating autophagy. Cell. 2017;170(3):548–563 e516. PubMed PMC

Zhang Q, Liu S, Parajuli KR, et al. Interleukin-17 promotes prostate cancer via MMP7-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Oncogene. 2017;36(5):687–699. PubMed PMC

Zhang Q, Ma C, Duan Y, et al. Gut microbiome directs hepatocytes to recruit MDSCs and promote cholangiocarcinoma. Cancer Discov. 2021;11(5):1248–1267. PubMed PMC

Zheng D, Liwinski T, Elinav E. Interaction between microbiota and immunity in health and disease. Cell Res. 2020;30(6):492–506. PubMed PMC

Zheng Y, Fang Z, Xue Y, et al. Specific gut microbiome signature predicts the early-stage lung cancer. Gut Microbes. 2020;11(4):1030–1042. PubMed PMC

Zhu Z, Huang J, Li X, et al. Gut microbiota regulate tumor metastasis via circRNA/miRNA networks. Gut Microbes. 2020;12(1):1788891. PubMed PMC

Zuo T, Wong SH, Lam K, et al. Bacteriophage transfer during faecal microbiota transplantation in Clostridium difficile infection is associated with treatment outcome. Gut. 2018;67(4):634–643. PubMed PMC