Human biomonitoring (HBM) data in Europe are often fragmented and collected in different EU countries and sampling periods. Exposure levels for children and adult women in Europe were evaluated over time. For the period 2000-2010, literature and aggregated data were collected in a harmonized way across studies. Between 2011-2012, biobanked samples from the DEMOCOPHES project were used. For 2014-2021, HBM data were generated within the HBM4EU Aligned Studies. Time patterns on internal exposure were evaluated visually and statistically using the 50th and 90th percentiles (P50/P90) for phthalates/DINCH and organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in children (5-12 years), and cadmium, bisphenols and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in women (24-52 years). Restricted phthalate metabolites show decreasing patterns for children. Phthalate substitute, DINCH, shows a non-significant increasing pattern. For OPFRs, no trends were statistically significant. For women, BPA shows a clear decreasing pattern, while substitutes BPF and BPS show an increasing pattern coinciding with the BPA restrictions introduced. No clear patterns are observed for PAHs or cadmium. Although the causal relations were not studied as such, exposure levels to chemicals restricted at EU level visually decreased, while the levels for some of their substitutes increased. The results support policy efficacy monitoring and the policy-supportive role played by HBM.

Central Directorate for Health Social Policies and Disability Friuli Venezia Giulia Region Via Cassa di Risparmio 10 34121 Trieste Italy

Centre for Health and Environment National Institute of Public Health 100 00 Prague Czech Republic

Department of Clinical Pharmacology Pharmacy and Environmental Medicine University of Southern Denmark 5000 Odense Denmark

Department of Environment and Health Public Health Authority 83105 Bratislava Slovakia

Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Santé Publique France 94410 Saint Maurice France

Department of Environmental Medicine Faculty of Public Health Slovak Medical University 833 03 Bratislava Slovakia

Department of Epidemiology National Institute of Health Doctor Ricardo Jorge Avenida Padre Cruz 1649 016 Lisbon Portugal

Department of Growth and Reproduction Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet 2100 Copenhagen Denmark

Department of Medicine Surgery and Health Sciences University of Trieste Strada di Fiume 447 34149 Trieste Italy

Department of Social Medicine and Epidemiology Faculty of Medicine University of Rijeka Bráce Branchetta 20 1 51000 Rijeka Croatia

Department of Toxicology Health Related Environmental Monitoring German Environment Agency 14195 Berlin Germany

Division for Environmental Health Croatian Institute of Public Health Rockefellerova 7 10000 Zagreb Croatia

Environmental Engineering Laboratory Department of Chemical Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 54124 Thessaloniki Greece

Environmental Health Engineering Institute of Advanced Study Palazzo del Broletto Piazza Della Vittoria 15 27100 Pavia Italy

Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition University of Iceland Hofsvallagata 53 107 Reykjavik Iceland

Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare 00271 Helsinki Finland

HERACLES Research Center on the Exposome and Health Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation Balkan Center Bldg B 10th km Thessaloniki Thermi Road 57001 Thessaloniki Greece

Institute of Environmental Medicine Karolinska Institutet 17177 Stockholm Sweden

International Center for Research and Research Training in Endocrine Disruption of Male Reproduction and Child Health University of Copenhagen Rigshospitalet 2100 Copenhagen Denmark

Jožef Stefan Institute 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Laboratoire National de Santé Rue Louis Rech 1 3555 Dudelange Luxembourg

Luxembourg Institute of Health 1445 Strassen Luxembourg

Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology 4362 Esch sur Alzette Luxembourg

National Centre for Environmental Health Instituto de Salud Carlos 3 28220 Majadahonda Spain

National Public Health Center Albert Florian 2 6 1097 Budapest Hungary

Neuroscience Institute Medical Academy Lithuanian University of Health Sciences LT 50161 Kaunas Lithuania

Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine 91 348 Lodz Poland

Norwegian Institute of Public Health 0456 Oslo Norway

RECETOX Faculty of Science Masaryk University Kotlarska 2 625 00 Brno Czech Republic

Section of Environmental Health University of Copenhagen 1165 Copenhagen Denmark

State General Laboratory Ministry of Health 2081 Nicosia Cyprus

Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute Kreuzstrasse 2 4123 Allschwil Switzerland

Toxicological Centre University of Antwerp Universiteitsplein 1 2610 Antwerp Belgium

UKHSA UK Health Security Agency Harwell Science Park Chilton OX11 0RQ UK

VITO Health Flemish Institute for Technological Research 2400 Mol Belgium

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