Neonicotinoids are one of the newest groups of systemic pesticides, effective on a wide range of invertebrate pests. The success of neonicotinoids can be assessed according to the amount used, for example, in the Czech Republic, which now accounts for 1/3 of the insecticide market. The European Union (EU) has a relatively interesting attitude towards neonicotinoids. Three neonicotinoid substances (imidacloprid, clothianidin and thiamethoxam) were severely restricted in 2013. In 2019, imidacloprid and clothianidin were banned, while thiamethoxam and thiacloprid were banned in 2020. In 2022, another substance, sulfoxaflor, was banned. Therefore, only two neonicotinoid substances (acetamiprid and flupyradifurone) are approved for outdoor use in the EU. Neonicotinoids enter aquatic ecosystems in many ways. In European rivers, neonicotinoids usually occur in nanograms per litre. Due to the low toxicity of neonicotinoids to standard test species, they were not expected to significantly impact the aquatic ecosystem until later studies showed that aquatic invertebrates, especially insects, are much more sensitive to neonicotinoids. In addition to the lethal effects, many studies point to sublethal impacts - reduced reproductive capacity, initiation of downstream drift of organisms, reduced ability to eat, or a change in feeding strategies. Neonicotinoids can affect individuals, populations, and entire ecosystems.

Laboratory of Aquatic Toxicology and Ichtyopathology Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters Research Institute of Fish Culture and Hydrobiology South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice Vodňany Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Abdel-Haleem DR, Gad AA, Farag SM. Larvicidal, biochemical and physiological effects of acetamiprid and thiamethoxam against Culex pipiens L. (Diptera: Culicidae). Egypt J Aquat Biol Fisher. 2020 May;24(3):271-83.

Abubakar Y, Tijjani H, Egbuna C, Adetunji CO, Kala S, Kryeziu TL, Patrick-Iwuanyanwu KC. Pesticides, history, and classification. In: Egbuna C, Sawicka B, editors. Natural remedies for pest, disease and weed control. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier; 2019. p. 29-42.

Alexander AC, Culp JM, Liber K, Cessna AJ. Effects of insecticide exposure on feeding inhibition in mayflies and oligochaetes. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2007 Aug;26(8):1726-32. PubMed

Armbrust KL, Peeler HB. Effects of formulation on the run-off of imidacloprid from turf. Pest Manag Sci. 2002 Jul;58(7):702-6. PubMed

Azadikhah D, Baghdari MV, Dadras M, Kadhim SI, Kareem AK, Hussein HA. Evaluation of histopathological and hematological effects of neonicotinoid (acetamiprid 20% SP) on grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Aquac Res. 2023 Feb:1-9.

Bal R, Turk G, Yilmaz O, Etem E, Kuloglu T, Baydas G, Naziroglu M. Effects of clothianidin exposure on sperm quality, testicular apoptosis and fatty acid composition in developing male rats. Cell Biol Toxicol. 2012 Jun;28(3):187-200. PubMed

Bartlett AJ, Hedges AM, Intini KD, Brown LR, Maisonneuve FJ, Robinson SA, Gillis PL, de Solla SR. Lethal and sublethal toxicity of neonicotinoid and butenolide insecticides to the mayfly, Hexagenia spp. Environ Pollut. 2018 Jul;238:63-75. PubMed

Bartlett AJ, Hedges AM, Intini KD, Brown LR, Maisonneuve FJ, Robinson SA, Gillis PL, de Solla SR. Acute and chronic toxicity of neonicotinoid and butenolide insecticides to the freshwater amphipod, Hyalella azteca. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2019 Jul 15;175:215-23. PubMed

Bass C, Denholm I, Williamson MS, Nauen R. The global status of insect resistance to neonicotinoid insecticides. Pestic Biochem Physiol. 2015 Jun;121:78-87. PubMed

Beketov MA, Liess M. Potential of 11 pesticides to initiate downstream drift of stream macroinvertebrates. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 2008 Aug;55(2):247-53. PubMed

Berens MJ, Capel PD, Arnold WA. Neonicotinoid insecticides in surface water, groundwater, and wastewater across land use gradients and potential effects. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2021 Apr;40(4):1017-33. PubMed PMC

Borges FLG, da Rosa Oliveira M, de Almeida TC, Majer JD, Garcia LC. Terrestrial invertebrates as bioindicators in restoration ecology: A global bibliometric survey. Ecol Indic. 2021 Jun:1-11.

Bundschuh M, Zubrod JP, Klottschen S, Englert D, Schulz R. Infochemicals influence neonicotinoid toxicity – Impact in leaf consumption, growth and predation of the amphipod Gammarus fossarum. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2020 Sep;39(9):1755-64. PubMed

Butcherine P, Kelaher BP, Taylor MD, Lawson C, Benkendorff K. Acute toxicity, accumulation and sublethal effects of four neonicotinoids on juvenile Black Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon). Chemosphere. 2021 Jul;275:129918. PubMed

Carreck NL. A beekeeper’s perspective on the neonicotinoid ban. Pest Manag Sci. 2017 Jul;73(7):1295-8. PubMed

Casado J, Brigden K, Santillo D, Johnston P. Screening of pesticides and veterinary drugs in small streams in the European Union by liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry. Sci Total Environ. 2019 Jun 20;670:1204-25. PubMed

Casida JE. Neonicotinoid metabolism: Compounds, substituents, pathways, enzymes, organisms, and relevance. J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Apr 13;59(7):2923-31. PubMed

Casida JE. Neonicotinoids and other insect nicotinic receptor competitive modulators: Progress and prospects. Annu Rev Entomol. 2018 Jan 7;63:125-44. PubMed

Casillas A, de la Torre A, Navarro I, Sanz P, Martinez MLA. Environmental risk assessment of neonicotinoids in surface water. Sci Total Environ. 2022 Feb 25;809:151161. PubMed

Ccanccapa A, Masia A, Andreu V, Pico Y. Spatio-temporal patterns of pesticide residues in the Turia and Júcar Rivers (Spain). Sci Total Environ. 2016 Jan 1;540:200-10. PubMed

Chiovarou ED, Siewicki TC. Comparison of storm intensity and application timing on modeled transport and fate of six contaminants. Sci Total Environ. 2008 Jan 15;389(1):87-100. PubMed

CHMI – Czech Hydrometeorological Institute. Neonicotinoids concentrations in surface waters in Czech Republic. 2023.

CISTA – Central Institute for Supervising and Testing in Agriculture. Usage of active substances in the Czech Republic [Internet]. Brno, Czech Republic: Central Institute for Supervising and Testing in Agriculture. 2023. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://eagri.cz/public/web/en/ukzuz/portal/plant-protection-products/usage-of-active-substances-in-cz/.

Covich AP, Palmer MA, Crowl TA. The role of benthic invertebrate species in freshwater ecosystems: Zoobenthic species influence energy flows and nutrient cycling. BioScience. 1999 Feb;49(2):119-27.

Cremlyn RJ. Pesticides: Preparation and mode of action. New Jersey, USA: Wiley; 1978. 240 p.

Demirci O, Gungordu A. Evaluation of the biochemical effects of an acetamiprid-based insecticide on a non-target species, Gambusia holbrooki. Water Environ J. 2020 Feb;34(S1):481-9.

Di Prisco G, Iannaccone M, Ianniello F, Ferrara R, Caprio E, Pennacchio F, Capparelli R. The neonicotinoid insecticide Clothianidin adversely affects immune signaling in a human cell line. Sci Rep. 2017 Oct 18;7(1):13446. PubMed PMC

Dong H, Xu L, Mao Y, Wang Y, Duan S, Lian J, Li J, Yu J, Qiang Z. Effective abatement of 29 pesticides in full-scale advanced treatment processes of drinking water: From concentration to human exposure risk. J Hazard Mater. 2021 Feb 5;403:123986. PubMed

EFSA – The European Food Safety Authority. Conclusion regarding the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance imidacloprid. EFSA J. 2008 Jul 28;6(7):148r. PubMed PMC

El-Garawani IM, Khallaf EA, Alne-Na-Ei AA, Elgendy RG, Sobhy HM, Khairallah A, Hathout HMR, Malhat F, Nofal AE. The effect of neonicotinoids exposure on Oreochromis niloticus histopathological alterations and genotoxicity. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2022 Dec;109(6):1001-9. PubMed PMC

EPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency. ECOTOX Knowledgebase [Internet]. Washington, D.C., USA: United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2023. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/search.cfm.

Escher BI, Ashauer R, Dyer S, Hermens JL, Lee JH, Leslie HA, Mayer P, Meador JP, Warne MS. Crucial role of mechanisms and modes of toxic action for understanding tissue residue toxicity and internal effect concentrations of organic chemicals. Integr Environ Assess Manag. 2011 Jan;7(1):28-49. PubMed

European Commission. Directive (EU) 2020/2184 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2020 on the quality of water intended for human consumption (recast) [Internet]. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission. 2020. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32020L2184.

European Commission. Neonicotinoids. Food safety [Internet]. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission. 2023. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://food.ec.europa.eu/plants/pesticides/approval-active-substances/renewal-approval/neonicotinoids_en.

FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Pesticides use, pesticides trade and pesticides indicators [Internet]. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2022. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/cc0918en/cc0918en.pdf.

Ge J, Xiao Y, Chai Y, Yan H, Wu R, Xin X, Wang D, Yu X. Sub-lethal effects of six neonicotinoids on avoidance behavior and reproduction of earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2018 Oct 30;162:423-9. PubMed

Gill RJ, Ramos-Rodriguez O, Raine NE. Combined pesticide exposure severely affects individual- and colony-level traits in bees. Nature. 2012 Nov 1;491(7422):105-8. PubMed PMC

Greatti M, Barbattini R, Stravisi A, Sabatini AG. Presence of the ai imidacloprid on vegetation near corn fields sown with Gaucho® dressed seeds. Bull Insectology. 2006 Jan;59(2):99-103.

Guo W, Yang Y, Zhou X, Ming R, Hu D, Lu P. Insight into the toxic effects, bioconcentration and oxidative stress of acetamiprid on Rana nigromaculata tadpoles. Chemosphere. 2022 Oct;305:135380. PubMed

Harada T, Takeda M, Kojima S, Tomiyama N. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Toxicol Res. 2016 Jan;32(1):21-33. PubMed PMC

Hassaan MA, El Nemr A. Pesticides pollution: Classifications, human health impact, extraction and treatment techniques. Egypt J Aquat Res. 2020 Sep;46(3):207-20.

Hathout HMR, Sobhy HM, Abou-Ghanima S, El-Garawani IM. Ameliorative role of ascorbic acid on the oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by acetamiprid in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021 Oct;28(39):55089-101. PubMed

Hayasaka D, Korenaga T, Suzuki K, Saito F, Sanchez-Bayo F, Goka K. Cumulative ecological impacts of two successive annual treatments of imidacloprid and fipronil on aquatic communities of paddy mesocosms. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2012 Jun;80:355-62. PubMed

Hedlund J, Longo SB, York R. Agriculture, pesticide use, and economic development: A global examination (1990–2014). Rural Sociol. 2019 Sep;85(2):519-44.

Henry M, Beguin M, Requier F, Rollin O, Odoux JF, Aupinel P, Aptel J, Tchamitchian S, Decourtye A. A common pesticide decreases foraging success and survival in honey bees. Science. 2012 Apr 20;336(6079):348-50. PubMed

Hladik ML, Main AR, Goulson D. Environmental risks and challenges associated with neonicotinoid insecticides. Environ Sci Technol. 2018 Mar 20;52(6):3329-35. PubMed

Hong X, Zhao X, Tian X, Li J, Zha J. Changes of hematological and biochemical parameters revealed genotoxicity and immunotoxicity of neonicotinoids on Chinese rare minnows (Gobiocypris rarus). Environ Pollut. 2018 Feb;233:862-71. PubMed

Houndji MAB, Imorou Toko I, Guedegba L, Yacouto E, Agbohessi PT, Mandiki SNM, Scippo ML, Kestemont P. Joint toxicity of two phytosanitary molecules, lambda-cyhalothrin and acetamiprid, on African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) juveniles. J Environ Sci Health B. 2020;55(7):669-76. PubMed

Hu G, Wang H, Zhu J, Zhou L, Li X, Wang Q, Wang Y. Combined toxicity of acetamiprid and cadmium to larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) based on metabolomic analysis. Sci Total Environ. 2023 Apr 1;867:161539. PubMed

IRAC – Insecticide Resistance Action Committee. IRAC guidelines for management of resistance to group 4 insecticides [Internet]. Insecticide Resistance Action Committee. 2015. [cited 2023 Jul15]. Available from: https://irac-online.org/updated-irm-guidelines-for-group-4-insecticides/.

IRAC – Insecticide Resistance Action Committee. The IRAC mode of action classification [Internet]. Insecticide Resistance Action Committee. 2023. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://irac-online.org/mode-of-action/classification-online/.

Jarman WM, Ballschmiter K. From coal to DDT: The history of the development of the pesticide DDT from synthetic dyes till Silent Spring. Endeavour. 2012 Dec;36(4):131-42. PubMed

Jiao H, Yuan T, Wang X, Zhou X, Ming R, Cui H, Hu D, Lu P. Biochemical, histopathological and untargeted metabolomic analyses reveal hepatotoxic mechanism of acetamiprid to Xenopus laevis. Environ Pollut. 2023 Jan 15;317:120765. PubMed

Kamran M, Shad SA, Binyameen M, Abbas N, Anees M, Shah RM, Hafez AM. Toxicities and cross-resistance of imidacloprid, acetamiprid, emamectin benzoate, spirotetramat, and indoxacarb in field populations of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Insects. 2022 Sep 13;13(9):830. PubMed PMC

Klarich KL, Pflug NC, DeWald EM, Hladik ML, Kolpin DW, Cwiertny DM, LeFevre GH. Occurrence of neonicotinoid insecticides in finished drinking water and fate during drinking water treatment. Environ Sci Technol Lett. 2017 Apr;4(5):168-73.

Klingelhofer D, Braun M, Bruggmann D, Groneberg DA. Neonicotinoids: A critical assessment of the global research landscape of the most extensively used insecticide. Environ Res. 2022 Oct;213:113727. PubMed

Kreutzweiser DP, Good KP, Chartrand DT, Scarr TA, Thompson DG. Are leaves that fall from imidacloprid-treated maple trees to control Asian longhorned beetles toxic to non-target decomposer organisms? J Environ Qual. 2008 Mar-Apr;37(2):639-46. PubMed

Lamers M, Anyusheva M, La N, Nguyen VV, Streck T. Pesticide pollution in surface- and groundwater by paddy rice cultivation: A case study from Northern Vietnam. Clean – Soil Air Water. 2011 Apr;39(4):356-61.

Lonare M, Kumar M, Raut S, Badgujar P, Doltade S, Telang A. Evaluation of imidacloprid-induced neurotoxicity in male rats: A protective effect of curcumin. Neurochem Int. 2014 Dec;78:122-9. PubMed

Lu C, Warchol KM, Callahan RA. In situ replication of honey bee colony collapse disorder. Bull Insectology. 2012 Jun;65(1);99-106.

Lu C, Lu Z, Lin S, Dai W, Zhang Q. Neonicotinoid insecticides in the drinking water system – Fate, transportation, and their contributions to the overall dietary risks. Environ Pollut. 2020 Mar;258:113722. PubMed

Ma X, Xiong J, Li H, Brooks BW, You J. Long-term exposure to neonicotinoid insecticide acetamiprid at environmentally relevant concentrations impairs endocrine functions in zebrafish: Bioaccumulation, feminization, and transgenerational effects. Environ Sci Technol. 2022 Sep 6;56(17):12494-505. PubMed

Mahai G, Wan Y, Xia W, Wang A, Shi L, Qian X, He Z, Xu S. A nationwide study of occurrence and exposure assessment of neonicotinoid insecticides and their metabolites in drinking water of China. Water Res. 2021 Feb 1;189:116630. PubMed

Main AR, Headley JV, Peru KM, Michel NL, Cessna AJ, Morrissey CA. Widespread use and frequent detection of neonicotinoid insecticides in wetlands of Canada’s Prairie Pothole Region. PLoS One. 2014 Mar 26;9(3):e92821. Erratum in: PLoS One. 2014;9(6):e101400. PubMed PMC

Maloney EM, Sykes H, Morrissey C, Peru KM, Headley JV, Liber K. Comparing the acute toxicity of imidacloprid with alternative systemic insecticides in the aquatic insect Chironomus dilutus. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2020 Mar;39(3):587-94. PubMed

Manjarres-Lopez DP, Andrades MS, Sanchez-Gonzalez S, Rodriguez-Cruz MS, Sanchez-Martin MJ, Herrero-Hernandez E. Assessment of pesticide residues in waters and soils of a vineyard region and its temporal evolution. Environ Pollut. 2021 Sep 1;284:117463. PubMed

Manojlovic JA, Johnson L, Sarfraz R. Environmental impact assessment review. Water monitoring for neonicotinoid pesticides in the Nicomekl watershed [Internet]. British Colombia, Canada: Ministry of Environment and Climate Change. 2021. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/air-land-water/water/waterquality/monitoring-water-quality/south-coast-wq-docs/nicomekl_neonics_water_quality_report.pdf.

Mas LI, Aparicio VC, De Geronimo E, Costa JL. Pesticides in water sources used for human consumption in the semiarid region of Argentina. SN Appl Sci. 2020 Mar 18;2(4):1-18.

Morrissey CA, Mineau P, Devries JH, Sanchez-Bayo F, Liess M, Cavallaro MC, Liber K. Neonicotinoid contamination of global surface waters and associated risk to aquatic invertebrates: A review. Environ Int. 2015 Jan;74:291-303. PubMed

Morse JC, Stark BP, McCafferty W. Southern Appalachian streams at risk: Implications for mayflies, stoneflies, caddisflies, and other aquatic biota. Aquat Conserv: Mar Freshw Ecosyst. 1993 Dec;3(4):293-303.

Mukherjee D, Saha S, Chukwuka AV, Ghosh B, Dhara K, Saha NC, Pal P, Faggio C. Antioxidant enzyme activity and pathophysiological responses in the freshwater walking catfish, Clarias batrachus Linn under sub-chronic and chronic exposures to the neonicotinoid, Thiamethoxam®. Sci Total Environ. 2022 Aug 25;836:155716. PubMed

Ndakidemi B, Mtei K, Ndakidemi PA, Ndakidemi B, Mtei K, Ndakidemi PA. Impacts of synthetic and botanical pesticides on beneficial insects. Agric Sci. 2016 Jun;7(6):364-72.

Pagano M, Stara A, Aliko V, Faggio C. Impact of neonicotinoids to aquatic invertebrates – In vitro studies on Mytilus galloprovincialis: A review. J Mar Sci Eng. 2020 Oct 15;8(10):801.

Palma P, Fialho S, Lima A, Catarino A, Costa MJ, Barbieri MV, Monllor-Alcaraz LS, Postigo C, de Alda ML. Occurrence and risk assessment of pesticides in a Mediterranean Basin with strong agricultural pressure (Guadiana Basin: Southern of Portugal). Sci Total Environ. 2021 Nov 10;794:148703. PubMed

PAN Europe – Pesticide Action Network Europe. Sulfoxaflor and flupyradifurone: Neonicotinoids or not? [Internet]. Brussels, Belgium: Pesticide Action Network Europe. 2016. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://www.pan-europe.info/sites/pan-europe.info/files/public/resources/factsheets/201609%20Factsheet%20What%20is%20a%20neonicotinoid_Flupyradifurone_Sulfoxaflor_EN_PAN%20Europe.pdf.

Peng Y, Fang W, Krauss M, Brack W, Wang Z, Li F, Zhang X. Screening hundreds of emerging organic pollutants (EOPs) in surface water from the Yangtze River Delta (YRD): Occurrence, distribution, ecological risk. Environ Pollut. 2018 Oct;241:484-93. PubMed

Pico Y, Alvarez-Ruiz R, Alfarhan AH, El-Sheikh MA, Alshahrani HO, Barcelo D. Pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products and microplastics contamination assessment of Al-Hassa irrigation network (Saudi Arabia) and its shallow lakes. Sci Total Environ. 2020 Jan 20;701:135021. PubMed

Picone M, Distefano GG, Marchetto D, Russo M, Baccichet M, Bruso L, Zangrando R, Gambaro A, Volpi Ghirardini A. Long-term effects of neonicotinoids on reproduction and offspring development in the copepod Acartia tonsa. Mar Environ Res. 2022 Oct 2;181:105761. PubMed

Pietrzak D, Kania J, Malina G, Kmiecik E, Wator K. Pesticides from the EU first and second Watch Lists in the water environment. Clean – Soil Air Water. 2019 Apr;47(7).

Pisa LW, Amaral-Rogers V, Belzunces LP, Bonmatin JM, Downs CA, Goulson D, Kreutzweiser DP, Krupke C, Liess M, McField M, Morrissey CA, Noome DA, Settele J, Simon-Delso N, Stark JD, Van der Sluijs JP, Van Dyck H, Wiemers M. Effects of neonicotinoids and fipronil on non-target invertebrates. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2015 Jan;22(1):68-102. PubMed PMC

Pistorius J, Bischoff G, Heimbach U, Stahler M. Bee poisoning incidents in Germany in Spring 2008 caused by abrasion of active substance from treated seeds during sowing of maize. Julius Kühn Archiv. 2008 Nov;423:118-26.

PubChem – National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem compound summary for CID 115224, thiacloprid. PubChem compound database [Internet]. Bethesda, USA: National Center for Biotechnology Information. 2023a. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/115224.

PubChem – National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem compound summary for CID 213021, acetamiprid. PubChem compound database [Internet]. Bethesda, USA: National Center for Biotechnology Information. 2023b. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/213021.

PubChem – National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem compound summary for CID 16752772, flupyradifurone. PubChem compound database [Internet]. Bethesda, USA: National Center for Biotechnol-ogy Information. 2023c. [cited 2023 Jul 15]. Available from: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/16752772.

Putri ZS, Aslan, Yusmur A, Yamamuro M. Neonicotinoid contamination in tropical estuarine waters of Indonesia. Heliyon. 2022 Aug 19;8(8):e10330. PubMed PMC

Quintana J, de la Cal A, Boleda MR. Monitoring the complex occurrence of pesticides in the Llobregat basin, natural and drinking waters in Barcelona metropolitan area (Catalonia, NE Spain) by a validated multi-residue online analytical method. Sci Total Environ. 2019 Nov 20;692:952-65. PubMed

Raby M, Nowierski M, Perlov D, Zhao X, Hao C, Poirier DG, Sibley PK. Acute toxicity of 6 neonicotinoid insecticides to freshwater invertebrates. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2018 May;37(5):1430-45. PubMed

Saad EM, Elassy NM, Salah-Eldein AM. Effect of induced sublethal intoxication with neonicotinoid insecticides on Egyptian toads (Sclerophrys regularis). Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022 Jan;29(4):5762-70. PubMed

Saka M, Tada N. Acute and chronic toxicity tests of systemic insecticides, four neonicotinoids and fipronil, using the tadpoles of the western clawed frog Silurana tropicalis. Chemosphere. 2021 May;270:129418. PubMed

Sanchez-Bayo F, Goka K, Hayasaka D. Contamination of the aquatic environment with neonicotinoids and its implication for ecosystems. Front Environ Sci. 2016 Nov 2;4:71.

Sanchez-Bayo F, Tennekes HA. Time-cumulative toxicity of neonicotinoids: Experimental evidence and implications for environmental risk assessments. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Mar 3;17(5):1629. PubMed PMC

Sarkar MA, Roy S, Kole RK, Chowdhury A. Persistence and metabolism of imidacloprid in different soils of West Bengal. Pest Manag Sci. 2001 Jul;57(7):598-602. PubMed

Senyildiz M, Kilinc A, Ozden S. Investigation of the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of widely used neonicotinoid insecticides in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells. Toxicol Ind Health. 2018 Jun;34(6):375-83. PubMed

Shah RM, Alam M, Ahmad D, Waqas M, Ali Q, Binyamin M, Shad SA. Toxicity of 25 synthetic insecticides to the field population of Culex quinquefasciatus Say. Parasitol Res. 2016 Nov;115(11):4345-51. PubMed

Sharma A, Kumar V, Shahzad B, Tanveer M, Sidhu GPS, Handa N, Kohli SK, Yadav P, Bali AS, Parihar RD, Dar OI, Singh K, Jasrotia S, Bakshi P, Ramakrishnan M, Kumar S, Bhardwaj R, Thukral AK. Worldwide pesticide usage and its impacts on ecosystem. SN Appl Sci. 2019 Oct;1(11):1-16.

Sjerps RMA, Kooij PJF, van Loon A, Van Wezel AP. Occurrence of pesticides in Dutch drinking water sources. Chemosphere. 2019 Nov;235:510-8. PubMed

Stara A, Bellinvia R, Velisek J, Strouhova A, Kouba A, Faggio C. Acute exposure of common yabby (Cherax destructor) to the neonicotinoid pesticide. Sci Total Environ. 2019 May 15;665:718-23. PubMed

Stara A, Pagano M, Albano M, Savoca S, Di Bella G, Albergamo A, Koutkova Z, Sandova M, Velisek J, Fabrello J, Matozzo V, Faggio C. Effects of long-term exposure of Mytilus galloprovincialis to thiacloprid: A multibiomarker approach. Environ Pollut. 2021 Nov 15;289:117892. PubMed

Stara A, Pagano M, Capillo G, Fabrello J, Sandova M, Albano M, Zuskova E, Velisek J, Matozzo V, Faggio C. Acute effects of neonicotinoid insecticides on Mytilus galloprovincialis: A case study with the active compound thiacloprid and the commercial formulation calypso 480 SC. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2020a Oct 15;203:110980. PubMed

Stara A, Pagano M, Capillo G, Fabrello J, Sandova M, Vazzana I, Zuskova E, Velisek J, Matozzo V, Faggio C. Assessing the effects of neonicotinoid insecticide on the bivalve mollusc Mytilus galloprovincialis. Sci Total Environ. 2020b Jan 15;700:134914. PubMed

Sultana T, Murray C, Kleywegt S, Metcalfe CD. Neonicotinoid pesticides in drinking water in agricultural regions of southern Ontario, Canada. Chemosphere. 2018 Jul;202:506-13. PubMed

Tan H, Zhang H, Wu C, Wang C, Li Q. Pesticides in surface waters of tropical river basins draining areas with rice-vegetable rotations in Hainan, China: Occurrence, relation to environmental factors, and risk assessment. Environ Pollut. 2021 Aug 15;283:117100. PubMed

Tang FHM, Lenzen M, McBratney A, Maggi F. Risk of pesticide pollution at the global scale. Nat Geosci. 2021 Mar;14(4):206-10.

Thompson DA, Hruby CE, Vargo JD, Field RW. Occurrence of neonicotinoids and sulfoxaflor in major aquifer groups in Iowa. Chemosphere. 2021 Oct;281:130856. PubMed PMC

Thompson DA, Lehmler HJ, Kolpin DW, Hladik ML, Vargo JD, Schilling KE, LeFevre GH, Peeples TL, Poch MC, LaDuca LE, Cwiertny DM, Field RW. A critical review on the potential impacts of neonicotinoid insecticide use: Current knowledge of environmental fate, toxicity, and implications for human health. Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2020 Jun 24;22(6):1315-46. PubMed PMC

Tomizawa M, Casida JE. Neonicotinoid insecticide toxicology: Mechanisms of selective action. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2005;45:247-68. PubMed

Troger R, Ren H, Yin D, Postigo C, Nguyen PD, Baduel C, Golovko O, Been F, Joerss H, Boleda MR, Polesello S, Roncoroni M, Taniyasu S, Menger F, Ahrens L, Yin Lai F, Wiberg K. What’s in the water? – Target and suspect screening of contaminants of emerging concern in raw water and drinking water from Europe and Asia. Water Res. 2021 Jun 15;198:117099. PubMed

Tudi M, Daniel Ruan H, Wang L, Lyu J, Sadler R, Connell D, Chu C, Phung DT. Agriculture development, pesticide application and its impact on the environment. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Jan 27;18(3):1112. PubMed PMC

Uckun M, Ozmen M. Evaluating multiple biochemical markers in Xenopus laevis tadpoles exposed to the pesticides thiacloprid and trifloxystrobin in single and mixed forms. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2021 Jul 13;40(10):2846-60. PubMed

Umetsu N, Shirai Y. Development of novel pesticides in the 21st century. J Pestic Sci. 2020 May 20;45(2):54-74. PubMed PMC

Veedu SK, Ayyasamy G, Tamilselvan H, Ramesh M. Single and joint toxicity assessment of acetamiprid and thiamethoxam neonicotinoids pesticides on biochemical indices and antioxidant enzyme activities of a freshwater fish Catla catla. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 2022 Jul;257:109336. PubMed

Velisek J, Stara A. Effect of thiacloprid on early life stages of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Chemosphere. 2018 Mar;194:481-7. PubMed

Wan Y, Tran TM, Nguyen VT, Wang A, Wang J, Kannan K. Neonicotinoids, fipronil, chlorpyrifos, carbendazim, chlorotriazines, chlorophenoxy herbicides, bentazon, and selected pesticide transformation products in surface water and drinking water from northern Vietnam. Sci Total Environ. 2021 Jan 1;750:141507. PubMed

Wang X, Anadon A, Wu Q, Qiao F, Ares I, Martinez-Larranaga MR, Yuan Z, Martinez MA. Mechanism of neonicotinoid toxicity: Impact on oxidative stress and metabolism. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2018a Jan 6;58:471-507. PubMed

Wang Y, Wu S, Chen J, Zhang C, Xu Z, Li G, Cai L, Shen W, Wang Q. Single and joint toxicity assessment of four currently used pesticides to zebrafish (Danio rerio) using traditional and molecular endpoints. Chemosphere. 2018b Feb;192:14-23. PubMed

Wang Y, Zhang Y, Li W, Yang L, Guo B. Distribution, metabolism and hepatotoxicity of neonicotinoids in small farmland lizard and their effects on GH/IGF axis. Sci Total Environ. 2019 Apr 20;662:834-841. PubMed

Wessler IK, Kirkpatrick CJ. Non-neuronal acetylcholine involved in reproduction in mammals and honeybees. J Neurochem. 2017 Aug;142(Suppl_2):144-50. PubMed

Whitehorn PR, O’Connor S, Wackers FL, Goulson D. Neonicotinoid pesticide reduces bumble bee colony growth and queen production. Science. 2012 Apr 20;336(6079):351-2. PubMed

Xu L, Granger C, Dong H, Mao Y, Duan S, Li J, Qiang Z. Occurrences of 29 pesticides in the Huangpu River, China: Highest ecological risk identified in Shanghai metropolitan area. Chemosphere. 2020 Jul;251:126411. PubMed

Yamamoto I, Tomizawa M, Saito T, Miyamoto T, Walcott EC, Sumikawa K. Structural factors contributing to insecticidal and selective actions of neonicotinoids. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol. 1998;37(1):24-32. PubMed

Zhong K, Meng Y, Wu J, Wei Y, Huang Y, Ma J, Lu H. Effect of flupyradifurone on zebrafish embryonic development. Environ Pollut. 2021 Sep 15;285:117323. PubMed

Zhou Y, Wu J, Wang B, Duan L, Zhang Y, Zhao W, Wang F, Sui Q, Chen Z, Xu D, Li Q, Yu G. Occurrence, source and ecotoxicological risk assessment of pesticides in surface water of Wujin District (northwest of Taihu Lake), China. Environ Pollut. 2020 Oct;265(Pt A):114953. PubMed