Poales are one of the most species-rich, ecologically and economically important orders of plants and often characterise open habitats, enabled by unique suites of traits. We test six hypotheses regarding the evolution and assembly of Poales in open and closed habitats throughout the world, and examine whether diversification patterns demonstrate parallel evolution. We sampled 42% of Poales species and obtained taxonomic and biogeographic data from the World Checklist of Vascular Plants database, which was combined with open/closed habitat data scored by taxonomic experts. A dated supertree of Poales was constructed. We integrated spatial phylogenetics with regionalisation analyses, historical biogeography and ancestral state estimations. Diversification in Poales and assembly of open and closed habitats result from dynamic evolutionary processes that vary across lineages, time and space, most prominently in tropical and southern latitudes. Our results reveal parallel and recurrent patterns of habitat and trait transitions in the species-rich families Poaceae and Cyperaceae. Smaller families display unique and often divergent evolutionary trajectories. The Poales have achieved global dominance via parallel evolution in open habitats, with notable, spatially and phylogenetically restricted divergences into strictly closed habitats.

Botany Area Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemical Engineering Universidad Pablo de Olavide ctra de Utrera km 1 41013 Seville Spain

Botany Department School of Natural Sciences Trinity College The University of Dublin Dublin 2 Ireland

Departamento de Botánica Instituto de Biología Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City CP 04510 Mexico

Departamento de Botânica Universidade de Brasília Brasília Distrito Federal CEP 70910 900 Brazil

Department of Biological Sciences University of Cape Town Cape Town 7700 South Africa

Department of Biology University of Marburg Karl von Frisch Str 8 35043 Marburg Germany

Department of Botany and Zoology Faculty of Science Masaryk University Kotlarska 2 Brno 611 37 Czech Republic

Department of Botany Gombe State University Tudun Wada Gombe 760001 Nigeria

Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology Texas A and M University College Station Texas TX 77843 2258 USA

Department of Plant Biology and Ecology Faculty of Biology University of Seville Reina Mercedes 6 Seville 41012 Spain

Foundational Research and Services South African National Biodiversity Institute Private Bag X101 Pretoria 0184 South Africa

National Herbarium of New South Wales Botanic Gardens of Sydney Australian Botanic Garden Locked Bag 6002 Mount Annan NSW 2567 Australia

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Richmond Surrey TW9 3AE UK

Sir Robert Norman Building James Cook University PO Box 6811 Cairns QLD 4870 Australia

Systematic and Evolutionary Botany Lab Department of Biology Ghent University K L Ledeganckstraat 35 9000 Gent Belgium

Universitetet i Bergen Universitetsmuseet Postboks 7800 NO 5020 Bergen Norway

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