Climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of short-term (~1 y) drought events-the most common duration of drought-globally. Yet the impact of this intensification of drought on ecosystem functioning remains poorly resolved. This is due in part to the widely disparate approaches ecologists have employed to study drought, variation in the severity and duration of drought studied, and differences among ecosystems in vegetation, edaphic and climatic attributes that can mediate drought impacts. To overcome these problems and better identify the factors that modulate drought responses, we used a coordinated distributed experiment to quantify the impact of short-term drought on grassland and shrubland ecosystems. With a standardized approach, we imposed ~a single year of drought at 100 sites on six continents. Here we show that loss of a foundational ecosystem function-aboveground net primary production (ANPP)-was 60% greater at sites that experienced statistically extreme drought (1-in-100-y event) vs. those sites where drought was nominal (historically more common) in magnitude (35% vs. 21%, respectively). This reduction in a key carbon cycle process with a single year of extreme drought greatly exceeds previously reported losses for grasslands and shrublands. Our global experiment also revealed high variability in drought response but that relative reductions in ANPP were greater in drier ecosystems and those with fewer plant species. Overall, our results demonstrate with unprecedented rigor that the global impacts of projected increases in drought severity have been significantly underestimated and that drier and less diverse sites are likely to be most vulnerable to extreme drought.

Biological Station of Hiddensee Department of Biology University of Greifswald Kloster D 18565 Germany

Brackenridge Field Laboratory University of Texas Austin TX 78747

Center for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications Cerdanyola del Vallès Barcelona Catalonia 08193 Spain

Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany Vácrátót 2163 Hungary

Centre for Integrative Ecology School of Life and Environmental Sciences Deakin University Burwood VIC 3125 Australia

Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificación Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Valencia 46113 Spain

Centro de Recursos Naturales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida CONICET Departamento de Biología Bioquímica y Farmacia Universidad Nacional del Sur Bahía Blanca 8000FTN Argentina

City of Boulder Open Space and Mountain Parks Boulder CO 80301

College of Grassland Science Shanxi Agricultural University Jinzhong 030801 China

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Environment Wembley WA 6913 Australia

Conservancy Communities Living Among Wildlife Sustainably Botswana Seronga 00000 Botswana

Denver Zoo Denver CO 80205

Departamento de Biodiversidad y Restauración Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Zaragoza 50059 Spain

Departamento de Ecologia Universidad de Alicante 03690 Alicante Spain

Departamento de Gestión Agropecuaria Universidad Nacional del Comahue Centro Universitario Regional Zona Atlántica Viedma 85009 Argentina

Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia Universidade Federal da Paraíba Cidade Universitária Castelo Branco João Pessoa PB 58051 900 Brazil

Department of Agricultural Food and Nutritional Science University of Alberta Edmonton AB T6G 2P5 Canada

Department of Biodiversity Research and Systematic Botany University of Potsdam Potsdam 14469 Germany

Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette IN 47907

Department of Biological Sciences University of Alberta Edmonton AB T6G 2E9 Canada

Department of Biological Sciences University of Bergen Bergen 5007 Norway

Department of Biology and Geology Rey Juan Carlos University Madrid 28032 Spain

Department of Biology Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80523

Department of Biology Indiana University Bloomington IN 47405

Department of Biology Saint Louis University St Louis MO 63103

Department of Biology The University of Winnipeg Winnipeg MB R3B 2E9 Canada

Department of Biology University of New Mexico Albuquerque NM 87131

Department of Biology University of Western Ontario London ON N6A 5B7 Canada

Department of Chemistry Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability University of Parma Parma 1 43124 Italy

Department of Community Ecology Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ Halle 06120 Germany

Department of Disturbance Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research University of Bayreuth Bayreuth 95447 Germany

Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology Texas A and M University College Station TX 77843

Department of Ecology and Environmental Science Umeå University Umeå S 901 87 Sweden

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Institute for Arctic and Alpine Research University of Colorado Boulder CO 80309

Department of Ecology Evolution and Behavior University of Minnesota Saint Paul MN 55108

Department of Ecology Evolution and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara CA 93106

Department of Ecology Universidade Federal de Goiás Goiânia GO 74690 900 Brazil

Department of Ecology Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre 91501 970 Brazil

Department of Ecology University of Innsbruck Innsbruck 6020 Austria

Department of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80523

Department of Environment and Society Utah State University Moab UT 84532

Department of Environmental Science and Management California State Polytechnic University Humboldt Arcata CA 95521

Department of Environmental Science Policy and Management University of California Berkeley CA 94720

Department of Environmental Studies University of California Santa Cruz CA 95064

Department of Geography and Biodiversity Research Centre University of British Columbia Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada

Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management University of Copenhagen Frederiksberg C 1958 Denmark

Department of Global Ecology Carnegie Institution for Science Stanford CA 94305

Department of Integrative Biology University of Texas Austin TX 78712

Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences Montana State University Bozeman MT 59717

Department of Natural Resource Science Thompson Rivers University Kamloops BC V2C 0C8 Canada

Department of Physiological Diversity Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ Leipzig 04318 Germany

Department of Plant Sciences University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon SK S7N5A8 Canada

Department of Range Management Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences Tarbiat Modares University Noor 46417 76489 Iran

Department of Renewable Resources University of Alberta Edmonton AB T6G 2E3 Canada

Department of Soil and Crop Sciences Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80523

Department of Wildland Resource and the Ecology Center Utah State University Logan UT 84322

Division of Biology Kansas State University Manhattan KS 66506

Ecology and Biodiversity Group Department of Biology Utrecht University Utrecht 3584 CH Netherlands

Ecosystem Physiology Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg Freiburg 79110 Germany

Environmental and Conservation Sciences Murdoch University Murdoch WA 6150 Australia

Geobotany Faculty of Biology University of Freiburg Freiburg D 79104 Germany

German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle Jena Leipzig Leipzig 04103 Germany

Global Ecology Unit Center for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications Bellaterra Catalonia 08194 Spain

Global Water Security Center The University of Alabama Tuscaloosa AL 35487

Graduate Degree Program in Ecology Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80523

Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences Yokohama National University Yokohama 240 8501 Japan

Gulbali Institute Charles Sturt University Albury NSW 2640 Australia

Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment Western Sydney University Penrith NSW 2751 Australia

Institute of Biology Leipzig University Leipzig 04103 Germany

Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology Department of Experimental Plant Ecology University of Greifswald Greifswald D 17498 Germany

Institute of Botany Czech Academy of Sciences Třeboň 379 01 Czech Republic

Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation Department of Plant Nutrition University of Bonn Bonn 53115 Germany

Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Tartu Tartu EE50409 Estonia

Institute of Ecology and Evolution Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena 07743 Germany

Institute of Grassland Science Key Laboratory of Vegetation Ecology of the Ministry of Education Jilin Songnen Grassland Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station Northeast Normal University Changchun 130024 China

Institute of Plant Sciences University of Bern Bern 3013 Switzerland

Institute of Resources and Environment International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration and Beijing for Bamboo and Rattan Science and Technology Beijing 100102 China

Instituto de Investigaciones Fisiológicas y Ecológicas Vinculadas a la Agricultura Faculty of Agronomy University of Buenos Aires Buenos Aires C1417DSE Argentina

Instituto Multidisciplinar para el Estudio del Medio Ramón Margalef Universidad de Alicante 03690 Alicante Spain

Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria Universidad Nacional d ela Patagonia Austral CONICET Río Gallegos Caleta Olivia Z9011 Argentina

Isotope Biogeochemistry and GasFluxes Leibniz Zentrum fürAgrarlandschaftsforschung Müncheberg 15374 Germany

Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology Chinese Academy of Sciences Xining Qinghai 810008 China

Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100101 China

Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute Chinese Academy of Forestry Beijing 100091 China

Laboratório de Ecologia Aplicada e Conservação Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia Universidade Federal da Paraíba Cidade Universitária Castelo Branco João Pessoa PB 58051 900 Brazil

Laboratorio de Ecología Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras CC 1260 Correo Central Mar del Plata B7600WAG Argentina

LI COR Biosciences 4647 Superior Street Lincoln NE 68505

Møreforsking Aalesund 6021 Norway

Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research Department of Landscape and Biodiversity Tjøtta 8860 Norway

Nova Scotia Community College Annapolis Valley Campus Applied Research Middleton NS B0S 1P0 Canada

Oeschger Center for Climate Change Research University of Bern Bern 3012 Switzerland

Oklahoma Biological Survey University of Oklahoma Norman OK 73019

Plant Ecology Group Department of Biology University of Tübingen Tübingen 72076 Germany

Prataculture Research Institute Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences Haerbin 150086 China

Programa de Posgrado en Desarrollo y Medio Ambiente Universidade Federal da Paraíba Cidade Universitária Castelo Branco João Pessoa PB 58051 900 Brazil

Range and Meadow Forage Management Research Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center US Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Burns OR 97720

Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology University of Tokyo Meguro Tokyo 153 8904 Japan

School of Agricultural Forest and Food Sciences Bern University of Applied Sciences Zollikofen 3052 Switzerland

School of Biological Sciences University of Oklahoma Norman OK 73019

School of Ecology and Environment Ningxia University Yinchuan 750021 China

School of Grassland Science Beijing Forestry University Beijing 100083 China

School of Life and Environmental Sciences The University of Sydney Camperdown NSW 2006 Australia

School of Life Sciences Global Drylands Center Arizona State University Tempe AZ 85281

School of Life Sciences University of Kwazulu Natal Pietermaritzburg 3201 South Africa

School of Plant Sciences and Food Security Faculty of Life Sciences Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv 69978 Israel

Soil and Crop Sciences Section School of Integrative Plant Science Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853

State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100093 China

U S Army Corps of Engineers Sacramento CA 95814

U S Geological Survey Southwest Biological Science Center Flagstaff AZ 86001

U S Geological Survey Southwest Biological Science Center Moab UT 84532

Universidad Nacional de Río Negro Centro de Estudios Ambientales desde la NorPatagonia Sede Atlántica CONICET Viedma 8500 Argentina

Université Clermont Auvergne National Research Institute for Agriculture Food and the Environment VetAgro Sup Research Unit for Grassland Ecosystems Clermont Ferrand 63000 France

Urat Desert grassland Research Station Northwest Institute of Eco Environment and Resources Chinese Academy of Science Lanzhou 730000 China

US Army Engineer Research and Development Center Environmental Laboratory Vicksburg MS 39180

See more in PubMed

Slette I. J., et al. , How ecologists define drought, and why we should do better. Global Change Biol. 25, 3193–3200 (2019). PubMed

Knapp A. K., et al. , Resolving the Dust Bowl paradox of grassland responses to extreme drought. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 117, 22249–22255 (2020). PubMed PMC

Breshears D. D., et al. , Rangeland responses to predicted increases in drought extremity. Rangelands 38, 191–196 (2016).

Ullrich P. A., et al. , California’s drought of the future: A midcentury recreation of the exceptional conditions of 2012–2017. Earth’s Future 6, 1568–1587 (2018). PubMed PMC

van Dijk A. I. J. M., et al. , The Millennium Drought in southeast Australia (2001–2009): Natural and human causes and implications for water resources, ecosystems, economy, and society. Water Resour. Res. 49, 1040–1057 (2013).

Maxmen A., Cape Town scientists prepare for ‘Day Zero’. Nature 554, 2 (2018). PubMed

Naumann G., et al. , Global changes in drought conditions under different levels of warming. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 3285–3296 (2018).

Ciais P., et al. , Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003. Nature 437, 529–533 (2005). PubMed

Du L., et al. , Global patterns of extreme drought-induced loss in land primary production: Identifying ecological extremes from rain-use efficiency. Sci. Total Environ. 628–629, 611–620 (2018). PubMed

Smith M. D., The ecological role of climate extremes: Current understanding and future prospects: Ecological role of climate extremes. J. Ecol. 99, 651–655 (2011).

IPCC, "The physical science basis. Contribution of working group 1 to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change" (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2013).

Cook B. I., Ault T. R., Smerdon J. E., Unprecedented 21st century drought risk in the American Southwest and Central Plains. Sci. Adv. 1, e1400082 (2015). PubMed PMC

Williams A. P., Cook B. I., Smerdon J. E., Rapid intensification of the emerging southwestern North American megadrought in 2020–2021. Nat. Clim. Change 12, 232–234 (2022), 10.1038/s41558-022-01290-z. DOI

Maestre F. T., et al. , Biogeography of global drylands. New Phytol. 231, 540–558 (2021). PubMed

White R. P., Murray S., Rohweder M., Grassland Ecosystems (World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, 2000).

Knapp A. K., Smith M. D., Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of aboveground primary production. Science 291, 481–484 (2001). PubMed

Strömberg C. A. E., Staver A. C., The history and challenge of grassy biomes. Science 377, 592–593 (2022). PubMed

Ahlström A., Xia J., Arneth A., Luo Y., Smith B., Importance of vegetation dynamics for future terrestrial carbon cycling. Environ. Res. Lett. 10, 054019 (2015).

Poulter B., et al. , Contribution of semi-arid ecosystems to interannual variability of the global carbon cycle. Nature 509, 600–603 (2014). PubMed

Song J., et al. , A meta-analysis of 1,119 manipulative experiments on terrestrial carbon-cycling responses to global change. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 1309–1320 (2019). PubMed

Wang J., et al. , Precipitation manipulation and terrestrial carbon cycling: The roles of treatment magnitude, experimental duration and local climate. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 30, 1909–1921 (2021).

Fraser L. H., et al. , Coordinated distributed experiments: An emerging tool for testing global hypotheses in ecology and environmental science. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11, 147–155 (2013).

Yahdjian L., et al. , Why coordinated distributed experiments should go global. BioScience 71, 918–927 (2021).

Gao J., Zhang L., Tang Z., Wu S., A synthesis of ecosystem aboveground productivity and its process variables under simulated drought stress. J. Ecol. 107, 2519–2531 (2019).

Zhang L., et al. , Drought events and their effects on vegetation productivity in China. Ecosphere 7, e01591 (2016), 10.1002/ecs2.1591. DOI

Báez S., Collins S. L., Pockman W. T., Johnson J. E., Small E. E., Effects of experimental rainfall manipulations on Chihuahuan Desert grassland and shrubland plant communities. Oecologia 172, 1117–1127 (2013). PubMed

Wu Z., Dijkstra P., Koch G. W., Peñuelas J., Hungate B. A., Responses of terrestrial ecosystems to temperature and precipitation change: A meta-analysis of experimental manipulation. Global Change Biol. 17, 927–942 (2011).

Koricheva J., Gurevitch J., Uses and misuses of meta-analysis in plant ecology. J. Ecol. 102, 828–844 (2014).

Komatsu K. J., et al. , Global change effects on plant communities are magnified by time and the number of global change factors imposed. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 116, 17867–17873 (2019). PubMed PMC

Peñuelas J., et al. , Nonintrusive field experiments show different plant responses to warming and drought among sites, seasons, and species in a North-South European gradient. Ecosystems 7, 598–612 (2004), 10.1007/s10021-004-0179-7. DOI

Batbaatar A., Carlyle C. N., Bork E. W., Chang S. X., Cahill J. F., Multi-year drought alters plant species composition more than productivity across northern temperate grasslands. J. Ecol. 110, 197–209 (2022).

Yang Y., Hillebrand H., Lagisz M., Cleasby I., Nakagawa S., Low statistical power and overestimated anthropogenic impacts, exacerbated by publication bias, dominate field studies in global change biology. Global Change Biol. 28, 969–989 (2021). PubMed PMC

Golodets C., et al. , Climate change scenarios of herbaceous production along an aridity gradient: Vulnerability increases with aridity. Oecologia 177, 971–979 (2015). PubMed

Knapp A. K., et al. , Differential sensitivity to regional-scale drought in six central US grasslands. Oecologia 177, 949–957 (2015). PubMed

Huxman T. E., et al. , Convergence across biomes to a common rain-use efficiency. Nature 429, 651–654 (2004). PubMed

Maurer G. E., Hallmark A. J., Brown R. F., Sala O. E., Collins S. L., Sensitivity of primary production to precipitation across the United States. Ecol. Lett. 23, 527–536 (2020). PubMed

Hou E., et al. , Divergent responses of primary production to increasing precipitation variability in global drylands. Global Change Biol. 27, 5225–5237 (2021). PubMed

Knapp A. K., et al. , Consequences of more extreme precipitation regimes for terrestrial ecosystems. BioScience 58, 811–821 (2008).

Sherry R. A., et al. , Lagged effects of experimental warming and doubled precipitation on annual and seasonal aboveground biomass production in a tallgrass prairie. Global Change Biol. 14, 2923–2936 (2008).

Dudney J., et al. , Lagging behind: Have we overlooked previous-year rainfall effects in annual grasslands? J. Ecol. 105, 484–495 (2017).

Yahdjian L., Sala O. E., Vegetation structure contrains primary production response to water availability in the Patagonian Steppe. Ecology 87, 952–962 (2006). PubMed

Noy-Meir I., Desert ecosystems: Environment and producers. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 4, 25–51 (1973).

Sala O. E., Parton W. J., Lauenroth W. K., Joyce L. A., Primary production of the central grassland region of the United States. Ecology 69, 40–45 (1988).

Isbell F., et al. , Biodiversity increases the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate extremes. Nature 526, 574–577 (2015). PubMed

Kulmatiski A., Beard K. H., Woody plant encroachment facilitated by increased precipitation intensity. Nat. Clim. Change 3, 833–837 (2013).

Winkler D. E., Belnap J., Hoover D., Reed S. C., Duniway M. C., Shrub persistence and increased grass mortality in response to drought in dryland systems. Global Change Biol. 25, 3121–3135 (2019). PubMed

Mackie K. A., Zeiter M., Bloor J. M. G., Stampfli A., Plant functional groups mediate drought resistance and recovery in a multisite grassland experiment. J. Ecol. 107, 937–949 (2019).

Hoover D. L., Wilcox K. R., Young K. E., Experimental droughts with rainout shelters: A methodological review. Ecosphere 9, e02088 (2018), 10.1002/ecs2.2088. DOI

Frank D. A., Inouye R. S., Temporal variation in actual evapotranspiration of terrestrial ecosystems: Patterns and ecological implications. J. Biogeogr. 21, 401 (1994).

Chiang F., Mazdiyasni O., AghaKouchak A., Evidence of anthropogenic impacts on global drought frequency, duration, and intensity. Nat. Commun. 12, 2754 (2021). PubMed PMC

Zhang F., et al. , When does extreme drought elicit extreme ecological responses? J. Ecol. 107, 2553–2563 (2019).

Kröel-Dulay G., et al. , Field experiments underestimate aboveground biomass response to drought. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 6, 540–545 (2022), 10.1038/s41559-022-01685-3. PubMed DOI PMC

Wang C., Sun Y., Chen H. Y. H., Yang J., Ruan H., Meta-analysis shows non-uniform responses of above- and belowground productivity to drought. Sci. Total Environ. 782, 146901 (2021). PubMed

Lemoine N. P., Sheffield J., Dukes J. S., Knapp A. K., Smith M. D., Terrestrial Precipitation Analysis (TPA): A resource for characterizing long-term precipitation regimes and extremes. Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 1396–1401 (2016).

Knapp A. K., et al. , Characterizing differences in precipitation regimes of extreme wet and dry years: Implications for climate change experiments. Global Change Biol. 21, 2624–2633 (2015). PubMed

Yahdjian L., Sala O. E., A rainout shelter design for intercepting different amounts of rainfall. Oecologia 133, 95–101 (2002). PubMed

English N. B., Weltzin J. F., Fravolini A., Thomas L., Williams D. G., The influence of soil texture and vegetation on soil moisture under rainout shelters in a semi-desert grassland. J. Arid Environ. 63, 324–343 (2005).

Signarbieux C., Feller U., Effects of an extended drought period on physiological properties of grassland species in the field. J. Plant Res. 125, 251–261 (2012). PubMed

Loik M. E., Lesage J. C., Brown T. M., Hastings D. O., Drought-Net rainfall shelters did not cause nondrought effects on photosynthesis for California central coast plants. Ecohydrology 12, e2138 (2019), 10.1002/eco.2138. DOI

Knapp A. K., Briggs J. M., Childers D. L., Sala O. E., “Estimating aboveground net primary production in grassland-and herbaceous-dominated ecosystems” in Principles and Standards for Measuring Primary Production, Fahey T. J., Knapp A. K., Eds. (Oxford University Press Inc, New York, NY, 2007), pp. 27–48.

Borer E. T., et al. , Finding generality in ecology: A model for globally distributed experiments. Methods Ecol. Evol. 5, 65–73 (2014).

Fahey T. J., Knapp A. K., Eds., Principles and Standards for Measuring Primary Production (The Long-Term Ecological Research Network Series, Oxford University Press, New York, 2007). https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195168662.001.0001/acprof-9780195168662. DOI

Smith M. D., Wilcox K. R., Power S. A., Tissue D. T., Knapp A. K., Assessing community and ecosystem sensitivity to climate change–Toward a more comparative approach. J. Veg. Sci. 28, 235–237 (2017).

Kreyling J., et al. , Species richness effects on grassland recovery from drought depend on community productivity in a multisite experiment. Ecol. Lett. 20, 1405–1413 (2017). PubMed

Lawrimore J. H., et al. “Global historical climatology network-monthly (GHCN-M), version 3” (NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, Asheville, NC, 2011), 10.7289/V5X34VDR. DOI

Funk C. C., et al. , “A quasi-global precipitation time series for drought monitoring: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series Report Number 832” (U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, 2014), p. 4.

Zomer R. J., Xu J., Trabucco A., Version 3 of the Global Aridity Index and Potential Evapotranspiration Database, Scientific Data 9, 409 (2022). Figshare. 10.6084/m9.figshare.7504448.v2. Accessed 18 April 2022. PubMed DOI PMC

Fick S. E., Hijmans R. J., WorldClim 2: New 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. Int. J. Climatol. 37, 4302–4315 (2017).

Beck H. E., et al. , MSWEP V2 global 3-hourly 0.1° precipitation: Methodology and quantitative assessment. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 100, 473–500 (2019).

Batjes N. H., Ribeiro E., van Oostrum A. J. M., Standardised soil profile data for the world (WoSIS Snapshot–September 2019), (2019), 10.17027/isric-wdcsoils.20190901. DOI

Muff S., Nilsen E. B., O’Hara R. B., Nater C. R., Rewriting results sections in the language of evidence. Trends Ecol. Evol. 37, 203–210 (2022). PubMed

R Core Team, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, 2021), https://www.R-project.org/.

M. D. Smith et al., Data for “Extreme drought impacts have been underestimated in grasslands and shrublands globally.” Dryad. 10.5061/dryad.3j9kd5lrb. Deposited 25 October 2023. PubMed DOI PMC

Extreme drought impacts have been underestimated in grasslands and shrublands globally