Temperate forests are undergoing significant transformations due to the influence of climate change, including varying responses of different tree species to increasing temperature and drought severity. To comprehensively understand the full range of growth responses, representative datasets spanning extensive site and climatic gradients are essential. This study utilizes tree-ring data from 550 sites from the temperate forests of Czechia to assess growth trends of six dominant Central European tree species (European beech, Norway spruce, Scots pine, silver fir, sessile and pedunculate oak) over 1990-2014. By modeling mean growth series for each species and site, and employing principal component analysis, we identified the predominant growth trends. Over the study period, linear growth trends were evident across most sites (56% increasing, 32% decreasing, and 10% neutral). The proportion of sites with stationary positive trends increased from low toward high elevations, whereas the opposite was true for the stationary negative trends. Notably, within the middle range of their distribution (between 500 and 700 m a.s.l.), Norway spruce and European beech exhibited a mix of positive and negative growth trends. While Scots pine growth trends showed no clear elevation-based pattern, silver fir and oaks displayed consistent positive growth trends regardless of site elevation, indicating resilience to the ongoing warming. We demonstrate divergent growth trajectories across space and among species. These findings are particularly important as recent warming has triggered a gradual shift in the elevation range of optimal growth conditions for most tree species and has also led to a decoupling of growth trends between lowlands and mountain areas. As a result, further future shifts in the elevation range and changes in species diversity of European temperate forests can be expected.

Department of Environment Faculty of Environment University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně Ústí nad Labem Czech Republic

Department of Forest Ecology Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Department of Forest Ecology The Silva Tarouca Research Institute Brno Czech Republic

Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic

Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia České Budějovice Czech Republic

Forestry and Game Management Research Institute Praha Czech Republic

Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Science Brno Czech Republic

Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences Třeboň Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Altman, J., Fibich, P., Santruckova, H., Dolezal, J., Stepanek, P., Kopacek, J., Hunova, I., Oulehle, F., Tumajer, J., & Cienciala, E. (2017). Environmental factors exert strong control over the climate-growth relationships of Picea abies in Central Europe. Science of the Total Environment, 609, 506-516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.134

Altman, J., Treydte, K., Pejcha, V., Cerny, T., Petrik, P., Srutek, M., Song, J.-S., Trouet, V., & Dolezal, J. (2020). Tree growth response to recent warming of two endemic species in Northeast Asia. Climatic Change, 162(3), 1345-1364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02718-1

Anderegg, W. R. L., Kane, J. M., & Anderegg, L. D. L. (2013). Consequences of widespread tree mortality triggered by drought and temperature stress. Nature Climate Change, 3(1), 30-36. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1635

Benito Garzón, M., Sánchez de Dios, R., & Sainz Ollero, H. (2008). Effects of climate change on the distribution of Iberian tree species. Applied Vegetation Science, 11(2), 169-178. https://doi.org/10.3170/2008-7-18348

Bivand, R. S., Pebesma, E., & Gómez-Rubio, V. (2013). Visualising Spatial Data. In R. S. Bivand, E. Pebesma, & V. Gómez-Rubio (Eds.), Applied spatial data analysis with R (pp. 59-82). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7618-4_3

Bolte, A., Czajkowski, T., & Kompa, T. (2007). The north-eastern distribution range of European beech-A review. Forestry, 80(4), 413-429. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpm028

Bonan, G. B. (2008). Forests and climate change: Forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science, 320(5882), 1444-1449. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155121

Bošela, M., Rubio-Cuadrado, Á., Marcis, P., Merganičová, K., Fleischer, P., Forrester, D. I., Uhl, E., Avdagić, A., Bellan, M., Bielak, K., Bravo, F., Coll, L., Cseke, K., del Rio, M., Dinca, L., Dobor, L., Drozdowski, S., Giammarchi, F., Gömöryová, E., … Tognetti, R. (2023). Empirical and process-based models predict enhanced beech growth in European mountains under climate change scenarios: A multimodel approach. Science of the Total Environment, 888, 164123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164123

Braun, S., Schindler, C., & Rihm, B. (2017). Growth trends of beech and Norway spruce in Switzerland: The role of nitrogen deposition, ozone, mineral nutrition and climate. Science of the Total Environment, 599, 637-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.230

Bunn, A. G. (2010). Statistical and visual crossdating in R using the dplR library. Dendrochronologia, 28(4), 251-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dendro.2009.12.001

Buras, A., & Menzel, A. (2019). Projecting tree species composition changes of european forests for 2061-2090 under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 1986. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01986

Buras, A., Rammig, A., & Zang, C. S. (2020). Quantifying impacts of the 2018 drought on European ecosystems in comparison to 2003. Biogeosciences, 17(6), 1655-1672. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-1655-2020

Cailleret, M., Jansen, S., Robert, E. M. R., Desoto, L., Aakala, T., Antos, J. A., Beikircher, B., Bigler, C., Bugmann, H., Caccianiga, M., Čada, V., Camarero, J. J., Cherubini, P., Cochard, H., Coyea, M. R., Čufar, K., Das, A. J., Davi, H., Delzon, S., … Martínez-Vilalta, J. (2017). A synthesis of radial growth patterns preceding tree mortality. Global Change Biology, 23(4), 1675-1690. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13535

Ciais, P., Reichstein, M., Viovy, N., Granier, A., Ogée, J., Allard, V., Aubinet, M., Buchmann, N., Bernhofer, C., Carrara, A., Chevallier, F., De Noblet, N., Friend, A. D., Friedlingstein, P., Grünwald, T., Heinesch, B., Keronen, P., Knohl, A., Krinner, G., … Valentini, R. (2005). Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003. Nature, 437(7058), 529-533. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03972

Cienciala, E., Altman, J., Doležal, J., Kopáček, J., Štěpánek, P., Ståhl, G., & Tumajer, J. (2018). Increased spruce tree growth in Central Europe since 1960s. Science of the Total Environment, 619-620, 1637-1647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.138

Cook, E. R., & Kairiukstis, L. A. (2013). Methods of dendrochronology: Applications in the environmental sciences. Springer Science & Business Media.

Dietrich, L., Hoch, G., Kahmen, A., & Koerner, C. (2018). Losing half the conductive area hardly impacts the water status of mature trees. Scientific Reports, 8, 15006. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-33465-0

Dittmar, C., Zech, W., & Elling, W. (2003). Growth variations of common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) under different climatic and environmental conditions in Europe-A dendroecological study. Forest Ecology and Management, 173(1), 63-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00816-7

Dubrovsky, M., Svoboda, M. D., Trnka, M., Hayes, M. J., Wilhite, D. A., Zalud, Z., & Hlavinka, P. (2009). Application of relative drought indices in assessing climate-change impacts on drought conditions in Czechia. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 96(1-2), 155-171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-008-0020-x

Durrant, T. H., De Rigo, D., & Caudullo, G. (2016). Pinus sylvestris in Europe: Distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, D. De Rigo, G. Caudullo, T. Houston Durrant, & A. Mauri (Eds.), European atlas of forest tree species. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/776635

Elling, W., Dittmar, C., Pfaffelmoser, K., & Rötzer, T. (2009). Dendroecological assessment of the complex causes of decline and recovery of the growth of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in southern Germany. Forest Ecology and Management, 257(4), 1175-1187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.10.014

Epron, D., & Dreyer, E. (1993). Long-term effects of drought on photosynthesis of adult oak trees [Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. and Quercus robur L.] in a natural stand. The New Phytologist, 125(2), 381-389. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1993.tb03890.x

Etzold, S., Ferretti, M., Reinds, G. J., Solberg, S., Gessler, A., Waldner, P., Schaub, M., Simpson, D., Benham, S., Hansen, K., Ingerslev, M., Jonard, M., Karlsson, P. E., Lindroos, A.-J., Marchetto, A., Manninger, M., Meesenburg, H., Merilä, P., Nöjd, P., … de Vries, W. (2020). Nitrogen deposition is the most important environmental driver of growth of pure, even-aged and managed European forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 458, 117762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117762

Etzold, S., Sterck, F., Bose, A. K., Braun, S., Buchmann, N., Eugster, W., Gessler, A., Kahmen, A., Peters, R. L., Vitasse, Y., Walthert, L., Ziemińska, K., & Zweifel, R. (2022). Number of growth days and not length of the growth period determines radial stem growth of temperate trees. Ecology Letters, 25(2), 427-439. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13933

Fatichi, S., Pappas, C., Zscheischler, J., & Leuzinger, S. (2019). Modelling carbon sources and sinks in terrestrial vegetation. New Phytologist, 221(2), 652-668. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15451

Fischer, A., Marshall, P., & Camp, A. (2013). Disturbances in deciduous temperate forest ecosystems of the northern hemisphere: Their effects on both recent and future forest development. Biodiversity and Conservation, 22(9), 1863-1893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-013-0525-1

Fox, J., & Weisberg, S. (2018). Visualizing fit and lack of fit in complex regression models with predictor effect plots and partial residuals. Journal of Statistical Software, 87, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v087.i09

Friedlingstein, P., O'Sullivan, M., Jones, M. W., Andrew, R. M., Gregor, L., Hauck, J., Le Quéré, C., Luijkx, I. T., Olsen, A., Peters, G. P., Peters, W., Pongratz, J., Schwingshackl, C., Sitch, S., Canadell, J. G., Ciais, P., Jackson, R. B., Alin, S. R., Alkama, R., … Zheng, B. (2022). Global carbon budget 2022. Earth System Science Data, 14(11), 4811-4900. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4811-2022

Gao, S., Liang, E., Liu, R., Babst, F., Camarero, J. J., Fu, Y. H., Piao, S., Rossi, S., Shen, M., Wang, T., & Peñuelas, J. (2022). An earlier start of the thermal growing season enhances tree growth in cold humid areas but not in dry areas. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 6(4), 397-404. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01668-4

Girardin, M. P., Bouriaud, O., Hogg, E. H., Kurz, W., Zimmermann, N. E., Metsaranta, J. M., de Jong, R., Frank, D. C., Esper, J., Büntgen, U., Guo, X. J., & Bhatti, J. (2016). No growth stimulation of Canada's boreal forest under half-century of combined warming and CO2 fertilization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(52), E8406-E8414. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610156113

Grossiord, C., Buckley, T. N., Cernusak, L. A., Novick, K. A., Poulter, B., Siegwolf, R. T. W., Sperry, J. S., & McDowell, N. G. (2020). Plant responses to rising vapor pressure deficit. New Phytologist, 226(6), 1550-1566. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16485

Gullo, M. A. L., Salleo, S., Piaceri, E. C., & Rosso, R. (1995). Relations between vulnerability to xylem embolism and xylem conduit dimensions in young trees of Quercus corris. Plant, Cell & Environment, 18(6), 661-669. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.1995.tb00567.x

Hacket-Pain, A. J., Cavin, L., Friend, A. D., & Jump, A. S. (2016). Consistent limitation of growth by high temperature and low precipitation from range core to southern edge of European beech indicates widespread vulnerability to changing climate. European Journal of Forest Research, 135(5), 897-909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-016-0982-7

Hanewinkel, M., Cullmann, D. A., Schelhaas, M.-J., Nabuurs, G.-J., & Zimmermann, N. E. (2013). Climate change may cause severe loss in the economic value of European forest land. Nature Climate Change, 3(3), 203-207. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1687

Hartl-Meier, C., Zang, C., Dittmar, C., Esper, J., Göttlein, A., & Rothe, A. (2014). Vulnerability of Norway spruce to climate change in mountain forests of the European Alps. Climate Research, 60(2), 119-132. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01226

Huang, J.-G., Zhang, Y., Wang, M., Yu, X., Deslauriers, A., Fonti, P., Liang, E., Mäkinen, H., Oberhuber, W., Rathgeber, C. B. K., Tognetti, R., Treml, V., Yang, B., Zhai, L., Zhang, J.-L., Antonucci, S., Bergeron, Y., Camarero, J. J., Campelo, F., … Rossi, S. (2023). A critical thermal transition driving spring phenology of Northern Hemisphere conifers. Global Change Biology, 29(6), 1606-1617. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16543

Hůnová, I. (2020). Ambient air quality in The Czech Republic: Past and present. Atmosphere, 11(2), 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11020214

Illés, G., & Móricz, N. (2022). Climate envelope analyses suggests significant rearrangements in the distribution ranges of Central European tree species. Annals of Forest Science, 79(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13595-022-01154-8

Janík, D., Král, K., Adam, D., Hort, L., Samonil, P., Unar, P., Vrska, T., & McMahon, S. (2016). Tree spatial patterns of Fagus sylvatica expansion over 37 years. Forest Ecology and Management, 375, 134-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.017

Kašpar, J., Šamonil, P., Vašíčková, I., Adam, D., & Daněk, P. (2020). Woody species-specific disturbance regimes and strategies in mixed mountain temperate forests in the Šumava Mts., Czech Republic. European Journal of Forest Research, 139(1), 97-109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-019-01252-9

Kašpar, J., Tumajer, J., Šamonil, P., & Vašíčková, I. (2021). Species-specific climate-growth interactions determine tree species dynamics in mixed Central European mountain forests. Environmental Research Letters, 16(3), 034039. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd8fb

Klein, T. (2014). The variability of stomatal sensitivity to leaf water potential across tree species indicates a continuum between isohydric and anisohydric behaviours. Functional Ecology, 28(6), 1313-1320. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12289

Klesse, S., DeRose, R. J., Babst, F., Black, B. A., Anderegg, L. D. L., Axelson, J., Ettinger, A., Griesbauer, H., Guiterman, C. H., Harley, G., Harvey, J. E., Lo, Y.-H., Lynch, A. M., O'Connor, C., Restaino, C., Sauchyn, D., Shaw, J. D., Smith, D. J., Wood, L., … Evans, M. E. K. (2020). Continental-scale tree-ring-based projection of Douglas-fir growth: Testing the limits of space-for-time substitution. Global Change Biology, 26(9), 5146-5163. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15170

Krejza, J., Cienciala, E., Světlík, J., Bellan, M., Noyer, E., Horáček, P., Štěpánek, P., & Marek, M. V. (2021). Evidence of climate-induced stress of Norway spruce along elevation gradient preceding the current dieback in Central Europe. Trees, 35(1), 103-119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-020-02022-6

Kunert, N. (2020). Preliminary indications for diverging heat and drought sensitivities in Norway spruce and Scots pine in Central Europe. iForest-Biogeosciences and Forestry, 13(2), 89-91. https://doi.org/10.3832/ifor3216-012

Květoň, V. (2001). Climatological normals of air temperature of The Czech Republic in the period 1961-1990 and selected air temperature characteristics of the period 1961-2000. Czech Hydrometeorological Institute.

Lewis, S. C., King, A. D., Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. E., & Mitchell, D. M. (2019). Regional hotspots of temperature extremes under 1.5°C and 2°C of global mean warming. Weather and Climate Extremes, 26, 100233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2019.100233

Martinez del Castillo, E., Prislan, P., Gričar, J., Gryc, V., Merela, M., Giagli, K., de Luis, M., Vavrčík, H., & Čufar, K. (2018). Challenges for growth of beech and co-occurring conifers in a changing climate context. Dendrochronologia, 52, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dendro.2018.09.001

Martinez del Castillo, E., Zang, C. S., Buras, A., Hacket Pain, A., Esper, J., Serrano-Notivoli, R., Hartl, C., Weigel, R., Klesse, S., Resco de Dios, V., Scharnweber, T., Dorado-Liñán, I., van der Maaten-Theunissen, M., van der Maaten, E., Jump, A. S., Mikac, S., Banzragch, B.-E., Beck, W., Cavin, L., … de Luis, M. (2022). Climate-change-driven growth decline of European beech forests. Communications Biology, 5, 163. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03107-3

Martínez-Vilalta, J., Poyatos, R., Aguadé, D., Retana, J., & Mencuccini, M. (2014). A new look at water transport regulation in plants. New Phytologist, 204(1), 105-115. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12912

McDowell, N. G., Allen, C. D., Anderson-Teixeira, K., Aukema, B. H., Bond-Lamberty, B., Chini, L., Clark, J. S., Dietze, M., Grossiord, C., Hanbury-Brown, A., Hurtt, G. C., Jackson, R. B., Johnson, D. J., Kueppers, L., Lichstein, J. W., Ogle, K., Poulter, B., Pugh, T. A. M., Seidl, R., … Xu, C. (2020). Pervasive shifts in forest dynamics in a changing world. Science, 368(6494), eaaz9463. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz9463

Metzger, M. J., Bunce, R. G. H., Jongman, R. H. G., Mücher, C. A., & Watkins, J. W. (2005). A climatic stratification of the environment of Europe. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 14(6), 549-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822X.2005.00190.x

Morales, P., Hickler, T., Rowell, D. P., Smith, B., & Sykes, M. T. (2007). Changes in European ecosystem productivity and carbon balance driven by regional climate model output. Global Change Biology, 13(1), 108-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01289.x

Morales, P., Sykes, M. T., Prentice, I. C., Smith, P., Smith, B., Bugmann, H., Zierl, B., Friedlingstein, P., Viovy, N., Sabaté, S., Sánchez, A., Pla, E., Gracia, C. A., Sitch, S., Arneth, A., & Ogee, J. (2005). Comparing and evaluating process-based ecosystem model predictions of carbon and water fluxes in major European forest biomes. Global Change Biology, 11(12), 2211-2233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.01036.x

Oulehle, F., Tahovská, K., Ač, A., Kolář, T., Rybníček, M., Čermák, P., Štěpánek, P., Trnka, M., Urban, O., & Hruška, J. (2022). Changes in forest nitrogen cycling across deposition gradient revealed by δ15N in tree rings. Environmental Pollution, 304, 119104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119104

Pan, Y., Birdsey, R. A., Fang, J., Houghton, R., Kauppi, P. E., Kurz, W. A., Phillips, O. L., Shvidenko, A., Lewis, S. L., Canadell, J. G., Ciais, P., Jackson, R. B., Pacala, S. W., McGuire, A. D., Piao, S., Rautiainen, A., Sitch, S., & Hayes, D. (2011). A large and persistent carbon sink in the world's forests. Science, 333(6045), 988-993. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201609

Ponocná, T., Spyt, B., Kaczka, R., Büntgen, U., & Treml, V. (2016). Growth trends and climate responses of Norway spruce along elevational gradients in East-Central Europe. Trees-Structure and Function, 30(5), 1633-1646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-016-1396-3

Pretzsch, H., Del Río, M., Arcangeli, C., Bielak, K., Dudzinska, M., Forrester, D. I., Klädtke, J., Kohnle, U., Ledermann, T., Matthews, R., Nagel, J., Nagel, R., Ningre, F., Nord-Larsen, T., & Biber, P. (2023). Forest growth in Europe shows diverging large regional trends. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 15373. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41077-6

R Core Team. (2023). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software]. R foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.R-project.org

Rossi, S., Anfodillo, T., Čufar, K., Cuny, H. E., Deslauriers, A., Fonti, P., Frank, D., Gričar, J., Gruber, A., Huang, J.-G., Jyske, T., Kašpar, J., King, G., Krause, C., Liang, E., Mäkinen, H., Morin, H., Nöjd, P., Oberhuber, W., … Treml, V. (2016). Pattern of xylem phenology in conifers of cold ecosystems at the Northern Hemisphere. Global Change Biology, 22, 3804-3813. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13317

Rozenberg, P., Chauvin, T., Escobar-Sandoval, M., Huard, F., Shishov, V., Charpentier, J.-P., Sergent, A.-S., Vargas-Hernandez, J. J., Martinez-Meier, A., & Pâques, L. (2020). Climate warming differently affects Larix decidua ring formation at each end of a French Alps elevational gradient. Annals of Forest Science, 77(2), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-020-00958-w

Rydval, M., & Wilson, R. (2012). The impact of industrial SO2 pollution on North Bohemia Conifers. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 223(9), 5727-5744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-012-1310-6

Sánchez-Salguero, R., Camarero, J. J., Gutiérrez, E., González Rouco, F., Gazol, A., Sangüesa-Barreda, G., Andreu-Hayles, L., Linares, J. C., & Seftigen, K. (2017). Assessing forest vulnerability to climate warming using a process-based model of tree growth: Bad prospects for rear-edges. Global Change Biology, 23(7), 2705-2719. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13541

San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., & Mauri, A. (2016). European atlas of forest tree species. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2788/4251

Scharnweber, T., Manthey, M., Criegee, C., Bauwe, A., Schröder, C., & Wilmking, M. (2011). Drought matters-Declining precipitation influences growth of Fagus sylvatica L. and Quercus robur L. in North-Eastern Germany. Forest Ecology and Management, 262(6), 947-961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.05.026

Sitch, S., Huntingford, C., Gedney, N., Levy, P. E., Lomas, M., Piao, S. L., Betts, R., Ciais, P., Cox, P., Friedlingstein, P., Jones, C. D., Prentice, I. C., & Woodward, F. I. (2008). Evaluation of the terrestrial carbon cycle, future plant geography and climate-carbon cycle feedbacks using five Dynamic Global Vegetation Models (DGVMs). Global Change Biology, 14(9), 2015-2039. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01626.x

Spinoni, J., Naumann, G., Vogt, J., & Barbosa, P. (2015). European drought climatologies and trends based on a multi-indicator approach. Global and Planetary Change, 127(9), 50-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.01.012

Tinner, W., & Lotter, A. F. (2006). Holocene expansions of Fagus silvatica and Abies alba in Central Europe: Where are we after eight decades of debate? Quaternary Science Reviews, 25(5-6), 526-549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.03.017

Treml, V., Tumajer, J., Jandová, K., Oulehle, F., Rydval, M., Čada, V., Treydte, K., Mašek, J., Vondrovicová, L., Lhotáková, Z., & Svoboda, M. (2022). Increasing water-use efficiency mediates effects of atmospheric carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen on growth variability of central European conifers. Science of the Total Environment, 838, 156483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156483

Trnka, M., Olesen, J. E., Kersebaum, K. C., Skjelvag, A. O., Eitzinger, J., Seguin, B., Peltonen-Sainio, P., Rotter, R., Iglesias, A., Orlandini, S., Dubrovsky, M., Hlavinka, P., Balek, J., Eckersten, H., Cloppet, E., Calanca, P., Gobin, A., Vucetic, V., Nejedlik, P., … Zalud, Z. (2011). Agroclimatic conditions in Europe under climate change. Global Change Biology, 17(7), 2298-2318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02396.x

Trotsiuk, V., Hartig, F., Cailleret, M., Babst, F., Forrester, D. I., Baltensweiler, A., Buchmann, N., Bugmann, H., Gessler, A., Gharun, M., Minunno, F., Rigling, A., Rohner, B., Stillhard, J., Thürig, E., Waldner, P., Ferretti, M., Eugster, W., & Schaub, M. (2020). Assessing the response of forest productivity to climate extremes in Switzerland using model-data fusion. Global Change Biology, 26(4), 2463-2476. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15011

Trouillier, M., van der Maaten-Theunissen, M., Scharnweber, T., Würth, D., Burger, A., Schnittler, M., & Wilmking, M. (2019). Size matters-A comparison of three methods to assess age- and size-dependent climate sensitivity of trees. Trees-Structure and Function, 33(1), 183-192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-018-1767-z

Tumajer, J., Altman, J., Štěpánek, P., Treml, V., Doležal, J., & Cienciala, E. (2017). Increasing moisture limitation of Norway spruce in Central Europe revealed by forward modelling of tree growth in tree-ring network. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 247, 56-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2017.07.015

Tumajer, J., Begović, K., Čada, V., Jenicek, M., Lange, J., Mašek, J., Kaczka, R. J., Rydval, M., Svoboda, M., Vlček, L., & Treml, V. (2023). Ecological and methodological drivers of non-stationarity in tree growth response to climate. Global Change Biology, 29(2), 462-476. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16470

Tumajer, J., Scharnweber, T., Smiljanic, M., & Wilmking, M. (2022). Limitation by vapour pressure deficit shapes different intra-annual growth patterns of diffuse- and ring-porous temperate broadleaves. New Phytologist, 233(6), 2429-2441. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17952

van der Maaten, E., Pape, J., van der Maaten-Theunissen, M., Scharnweber, T., Smiljanic, M., Cruz-Garcia, R., & Wilmking, M. (2018). Distinct growth phenology but similar daily stem dynamics in three co-occurring broadleaved tree species. Tree Physiology, 38(12), 1820-1828. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpy042

Vejpustková, M., Čihák, T., & Fišer, P. (2023). The increasing drought sensitivity of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) is evident in the last two decades. Journal of Forest Science, 69(2), 67-79. https://doi.org/10.17221/172/2022-JFS

Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002). Modern applied statistics with S. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-21706-2

Wilmking, M., van der Maaten-Theunissen, M., van der Maaten, E., Scharnweber, T., Buras, A., Biermann, C., Gurskaya, M., Hallinger, M., Lange, J., Shetti, R., Smiljanic, M., & Trouillier, M. (2020). Global assessment of relationships between climate and tree growth. Global Change Biology, 26(6), 3212-3220. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15057

Wood, S. N. (2011). Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology), 73(1), 3-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9868.2010.00749.x

Zahradníček, P., Brázdil, R., Štěpánek, P., & Trnka, M. (2021). Reflections of global warming in trends of temperature characteristics in The Czech Republic, 1961-2019. International Journal of Climatology, 41(2), 1211-1229. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.6791

Zang, C., Hartl-Meier, C., Dittmar, C., Rothe, A., & Menzel, A. (2014). Patterns of drought tolerance in major European temperate forest trees: Climatic drivers and levels of variability. Global Change Biology, 20(12), 3767-3779. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12637

Longer growing seasons will not offset growth loss in drought-prone temperate forests of Central-Southeast Europe