Evidence for divergent selection and adaptive variation across the landscape can provide insight into a species' ability to adapt to different environments. However, despite recent advances in genomics, it remains difficult to detect the footprints of climate-mediated selection in natural populations. Here, we analysed ddRAD sequencing data (21,892 SNPs) in conjunction with geographic climate variation to search for signatures of adaptive differentiation in twelve populations of the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) distributed across Europe. To identify the loci subject to selection associated with climate variation, we applied multiple genotype-environment association methods, two univariate and one multivariate, and controlled for the effect of population structure. In total, we identified 213 candidate loci for adaptation, 74 of which were located within genes. In particular, we identified signatures of selection in candidate genes with functions related to lipid metabolism and the immune system. Using the results of redundancy analysis, we demonstrated that population history and climate have joint effects on the genetic variation in the pan-European metapopulation. Furthermore, by examining only candidate loci, we found that annual mean temperature is an important factor shaping adaptive genetic variation in the bank vole. By combining landscape genomic approaches, our study sheds light on genome-wide adaptive differentiation and the spatial distribution of variants underlying adaptive variation influenced by local climate in bank voles.

Animal Ecology Institute for Biochemistry and Biology Faculty of Science Berlin Brandenburg Institute for Biodiversity Research University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany

CBGP INRAE CIRAD Institut Agro IRD Univ Montpellier Montpellier France

Comparative Cognition Unit Messerli Research Institute University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Vienna Austria

Department of Forest Ecology FFWT Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic

Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj Napoca Romania

Department of Parasitology and Zoology University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest Hungary

Evolutionary Adaptive Genomics Institute for Biochemistry and Biology Faculty of Science University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany

Fondazione Ethoikos Convento dell'Osservanza Radicondoli Italy

HUN REN Climate Change New Blood Sucking Parasites and Vector Borne Pathogens Research Group Budapest Hungary

INRAE Oniris BIOEPAR Nantes France

Laboratory of Molecular Ecology Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Czech Academy of Sciences Liběchov Czech Republic

Natural Resources Institute Finland Helsinki Finland

Present address Evolutionary Ecology Group Department of Zoology University of Cambridge Cambridge UK

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