Recent advances in interdisciplinary archaeological research in Arabia have focused on the evolution and historical development of regional human populations as well as the diverse patterns of cultural change, migration, and adaptations to environmental fluctuations. Obtaining a comprehensive understanding of cultural developments such as the emergence and lifeways of Neolithic groups has been hindered by the limited preservation of stratified archaeological assemblages and organic remains, a common challenge in arid environments. Underground settings like caves and lava tubes, which are prevalent in Arabia but which have seen limited scientific exploration, offer promising opportunities for addressing these issues. Here, we report on an archaeological excavation and a related survey at and around Umm Jirsan lava tube in the Harrat Khaybar, north-western Saudi Arabia. Our results reveal repeated phases of human occupation of the site ranging from at least the Neolithic through to the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age. Pastoralist use of the lava tube and surrounding landscape is attested in rock art and faunal records, suggesting that Umm Jirsan was situated along a pastoral route linking key oases. Isotopic data indicates that herbivores primarily grazed on wild grasses and shrubs rather than being provided with fodder, while humans had a diet consistently high in protein but with increasing consumption of C3 plants through-time, perhaps related to the emergence of oasis agriculture. While underground and naturally sheltered localities are globally prominent in archaeology and Quaternary science, our work represents the first such combined records for Saudi Arabia and highlight the potential for interdisciplinary studies in caves and lava tubes.

Arne Faculty of Arts Masaryk University Brno Czechia

Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution Griffith University Brisbane Australia

Centre for Quaternary Research Department of Geography Royal Holloway University of London Surrey United Kingdom

Climate Change and History Research Initiative Princeton University Princeton New Jersey United States of America

Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania United States of America

Department of Archaeology College of Tourism and Archaeology King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia

Department of Archaeology Durham University Durham United Kingdom

Department of Archaeology Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology Jena Germany

Department of Bioarchaeology Faculty of Archaeology University of Warsaw Warszaw Poland

Department of Classics and Archaeology University of Malta Msida Malta

Extreme Events Research Group the Max Planck Institutes of Geoanthropology Chemical Ecology and Biogeochemistry Jena Germany

Geotourism Department Saudi Geological Survey Jeddah Saudi Arabia

Griffith Sciences Griffith University Brisbane Australia

Heritage Commission Ministry of Culture Riyadh Saudi Arabia

Human Origins Program Smithsonian Institution Washington D C United States of America

Human Palaeosystems Group Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology Jena Germany

Institute for Archaeological Sciences Department of Geosciences University of Tübingen Tübingen Germany

Institute of Prehistoric Archaeology University of Cologne Cologne Germany

Museum of Palaeontology Research Museum Centre Ann Arbor Michigan United States of America

Palaeontology Division Directorate of Geological Survey Survey and Exploration Centre Saudi Geological Survey Jeddah Saudi Arabia

School of Social Science University of Queensland St Lucia Australia

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