INTRODUCTION: This study examines the relationships between perceived hope, posttraumatic growth, well-being, anxiety, and perceived threat of the Russian-Ukrainian War (RUW) in the Czech adult population. Drawing on the evidence of posttraumatic growth (PTG) amidst crisis, we hypothesized that perceived hope moderates the effects of perceived threat of war and anxiety on PTG. METHODS: Data were obtained from 1,000 Czech respondents via an online questionnaire ten months post-invasion. The form included measures of posttraumatic growth, perceived hope, well-being, anxiety and depression, and perceived threat of war. RESULTS: Our findings reveal that perceived hope acted as a moderator enhancing the positive effects of perceived threat and anxiety on PTG. However, perceived hope did not significantly moderate the direct effects of perceived threats and anxiety on well-being. DISCUSSION: This study highlights the significant role of hope amidst adversity and underscores its potential as a target for interventions aiming to foster PTG in populations who navigate traumatic experiences. Furthermore, it advocates for continued exploration of the factors interacting to enhance well-being and facilitate PTG in affected communities.

Department of Medical Psychology and Psychosomatics Faculty of Medicine Masaryk University Brno Czechia

Department of Psychology Faculty of Arts University of Ostrava Ostrava Czechia

Institute of Systemic Management and Public Governance University of St Gallen St Gallen Switzerland

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Ai A., Cascio T., Santangelo L., Evans-Campbell T. (2005). Hope, meaning, and growth following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. J. Interpers. Viol. 20, 523–548. doi: 10.1177/0886260504272896 PubMed DOI

Alpay E. H. (2024). The moderator roles of depression and anxiety symptoms in the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic growth in Syrian refugees. Psychol. Trauma 16, 68–75. doi: 10.1037/tra0001613 PubMed DOI

Barchielli B., Cricenti C., Gallè F., Sabella E. A., Liguori F., Molin D., et al. . (2022). Climate changes, natural resources depletion, COVID-19 pandemic, and Russian-Ukrainian war: what is the impact on habits change and mental health? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19:11929. doi: 10.3390/ijerph191911929, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Barlow D. H. (2000). Unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. Am. Psychol. 55, 1247–1263. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1247, PMID: PubMed DOI

Bazargan-Hejazi S., Dehghan K., Chou S., Bailey S., Baron K., Assari S., et al. . (2023). Hope, optimism, gratitude, and well-being among health professional minority college students. J. Am. Coll. Heal. 71, 1125–1133. doi: 10.1080/07448481.2021.1922415, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Bovaird J. A., Koziol N. A. (2012). “Measurement models for ordered-categorical indicators” in Handbook of structural equation modeling. ed. Hoyle R. H. (London: The Guilford Press; ), 495–511.

Brewin C. R., Andrews B., Valentine J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 68, 748–766. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.748, PMID: PubMed DOI

Cann A., Calhoun L. G., Tedeschi R. G., Taku K., Vishnevsky T., Triplett K. N., et al. . (2010). A short form of the posttraumatic growth inventory. Anxiety Stress Coping 23, 127–137. doi: 10.1080/10615800903094273, PMID: PubMed DOI

Chaaya C., Devi Thambi V., Sabuncu Ö., Abedi R., Osman Ahmed Osman A., Uwishema O., et al. . (2022). Ukraine - Russia crisis and its impacts on the mental health of Ukrainian young people during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ann. Med. Surg. 79:104033. doi: 10.1016/j.amsu.2022.104033 PubMed DOI PMC

Chang M., Kim Y. (2020). The relationship between self-efficacy and posttraumatic growth: mediating effect of cognitive flexibility and hope. J. Korea Content Assoc. 20, 131–141. doi: 10.5392/JKCA.2020.20.06.131 DOI

Chen Z. J., Bechara A. O., Cowden R. G., Worthington E. L., Jr. (2022). Perceived posttraumatic growth after interpersonal trauma and subsequent well-being among young Colombian adults: a longitudinal analysis. Front. Psychol. 13:993609. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.993609, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Chudzicka-Czupała A., Hapon N., Chiang S. K., Żywiołek-Szeja M., Karamushka L., Lee C. T., et al. . (2023). Depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress during the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian war, a comparison between populations in Poland, Ukraine, and Taiwan. Sci. Rep. 13:3602. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-28729-3, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Cohn M. A., Fredrickson B. L. (2009). “Positive emotions” in Oxford handbook of positive psychology. eds. Lopez S. J., Snyder C. R. (Oxford: Oxford University Press; ), 13–24.

Collazo-Castiñeira P., Rodríguez-Rey R., Garrido-Hernansaiz H., Collado S. (2022). Prediction of posttraumatic growth in the face of the COVID-19 crisis based on resilience, posttraumatic stress and social participation: a longitudinal study. Front. Psychol. 13:985879. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.985879, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

de Girolamo G., Ferrari C., Candini V., Buizza C., Calamandrei G., Caserotti M., et al. . (2022). Psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy assessed in a four-waves survey. Sci. Rep. 12:17945. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-22994-4, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Dekel S., Ein-Dor T., Solomon Z. (2012). Posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic distress: a longitudinal study. Psychol. Trauma 4, 94–101. doi: 10.1037/A0021865 DOI

Diab S. Y., Isosävi S., Qouta S. R., Kuittinen S., Punamäki R. L. (2018). The protective role of maternal posttraumatic growth and cognitive trauma processing in Palestinian mothers and infants: a longitudinal study. Lancet 391:S39. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30405-7, PMID: PubMed DOI

Durbin J., Watson G. S. (1951). Testing for serial correlation in least squares regression, II. Biometrika 38, 159–178. doi: 10.1093/biomet/38.1-2.159 PubMed DOI

Eltanamly H., Leijten P., van Rooij F., Overbeek G. (2022). Parenting in times of refuge: a qualitative investigation. Fam. Process 61, 1248–1263. doi: 10.1111/famp.12717, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Farran C. J., Herth K. A., Popovich J. M. (1995). Hope and hopelessness: Critical clinical constructs. New York: Sage.

Fatahi N., Kakamad K., Babakr Z., Tafran K., Økland Ø. (2021). COVID-19 and its triangle effects on human's well-being: a qualitative research method used to collect appropriate data. Acta Inform. Med. 29, 197–204. doi: 10.5455/aim.2021.29.197-204 PubMed DOI PMC

Feldman D. B., Balaraman M., Anderson C. (2018). “Hope and meaning-in-life: points of contact between hope theory and existentialism” in The Oxford handbook of hope. eds. Gallagher M. W., Lopez S. J. (Oxford: Oxford University Press; ), 353–362.

Ferriss S. S., Forrest B. S. (2018). Perspectives of Somali refugees on posttraumatic growth after resettlement. J. Refugee Stud. 31, 626–646. doi: 10.1093/jrs/fey006 DOI

Frankl V. E. (1992). Man's search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press.

Gallagher M. W., Smith L. J., Richardson A. L., D’Souza J. M., Long L. J. (2021). Examining the longitudinal effects and potential mechanisms of hope on COVID-19 stress, anxiety, and well-being. Cognit. Behav. Ther. 50, 234–245. doi: 10.1080/16506073.2021.1877341, PMID: PubMed DOI

Ghosn F., Chu T., Simon M., Braithwaite A., Frith M., Jandali J. (2021). The journey home: violence, anchoring, and refugee decisions to return. Amer. Polit. Sci. Rev. 115, 982–998. doi: 10.1017/S0003055421000344 DOI

Guse T., Shaw M. (2018). “Hope, meaning in life and well-being among a group of young adults” in Hope for a good life. Results of the Hope-barometer international research program. eds. Krafft A. M., Perrig-Chiello P., Walker A. (Cham: Springer; ), 63–77.

Hammer K., Mogensen O., Hall E. O. (2009). The meaning of hope in nursing research: a meta-synthesis. Scand. J. Car. Sci. 23, 549–557. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6712.2008.00635.x, PMID: PubMed DOI

Hayes A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. 3rd Edn. London: The Guilford Press.

Ho S., Rajandram R., Chan N., Samman N., Mcgrath C., Zwahlen R. (2011). The roles of hope and optimism on posttraumatic growth in oral cavity cancer patients. Oral Oncol. 47, 121–124. doi: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2010.11.015, PMID: PubMed DOI

Horesh D., Brown A. D. (2020). Traumatic stress in the age of COVID-19: a call to close critical gaps and adapt to new realities. Psychol. Trauma 12, 331–335. doi: 10.1037/tra0000592 PubMed DOI

Hu L. T., Bentler P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equat. Model. Multidiscipl. J. 6, 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118 DOI

Hullmann S., Fedele D., Molzon E., Mayes S., Mullins L. (2014). Posttraumatic growth and hope in parents of children with cancer. J. Psychosoc. Oncol. 32, 696–707. doi: 10.1080/07347332.2014.955241, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Jawaid A., Gomolka M., Timmer A. (2022). Neuroscience of trauma and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Nat. Hum. Behav. 6, 748–749. doi: 10.1038/s41562-022-01344-4 PubMed DOI

Jeftić A., Ikizer G., Tuominen J., Chrona S., Kumaga R. (2021). Connection between the COVID-19 pandemic, war trauma reminders, perceived stress, loneliness, and PTSD in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Curr. Psychol. 42, 8582–8594. doi: 10.1007/s12144-021-02407-x, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Kalaitzaki A., Tamiolaki A., Tsouvelas G. (2022). From secondary traumatic stress to vicarious posttraumatic growth amid COVID-19 lockdown in Greece: the role of health care workers' coping strategies. Psychol. Trauma Theory Res. Pract. Policy 14, 273–280. doi: 10.1037/tra0001078, PMID: PubMed DOI

Kalaitzaki A. E., Tamiolaki A., Vintila M. (2022). The compounding effect of Covid-19 and war in Ukraine on mental health: a global time bomb soon to explode? J. Loss Trauma 28, 270–272. doi: 10.1080/15325024.2022.2114654 DOI

Karaman M. A., Vela J. C., Garcia C. (2020). Do hope and meaning of life mediate resilience and life satisfaction among Latinx students? Brit. J. Guid. And Couns. 48, 685–696. doi: 10.1080/03069885.2020.1760206 DOI

Karanci A., Işıklı S., Aker A., Gül E., Erkan B., Özkol H., et al. . (2012). Personality, posttraumatic stress and trauma type: factors contributing to posttraumatic growth and its domains in a Turkish community sample. Europ. J. Psychotraumat. 3:303. doi: 10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.17303 PubMed DOI PMC

Keyes C. L. M. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating the axioms of the complete state model of health. J Consul. Clin. Psychol. 73, 539–548. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.539 PubMed DOI

Kimhi S., Eshel Y., Marciano H., Adini B. (2023). Impact of the war in Ukraine on resilience, protective, and vulnerability factors. Front. Public Health 11:1053940. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1053940, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Kinderman P., Tai S., Pontin E., Schwannauer M., Jarman I., Lisboa P. (2015). Causal and mediating factors for anxiety, depression and well-being. Brit. J. Psychiatry 206, 456–460. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.114.147553 PubMed DOI

Klicperova-Baker M., Urban M. (2023). Democratic spirit, emotions, help, and hope during the russian war against Ukraine: experience from the Czech Republic. Appl. Psychol. 3, 1–19. doi: 10.1111/aphw.12486 PubMed DOI

Kokun O. (2023). The personal growth resources of the adult population following the first months of the war in Ukraine. Int. J. Psychol. 58, 407–414. doi: 10.1002/ijop.12915, PMID: PubMed DOI

Kondratyuk V., Puchalska-Wasyl M. M. (2019). Posttraumatic growth, resiliency, and basic hope in soldiers fighting in eastern Ukraine. Roczniki Psychol. 22, 213–231. doi: 10.18290/rpsych.2019.22.3-2 DOI

Koubová A., Kimhi S. (2024). Prediction of individual, community and societal resilience in the Czech Republic compared to Slovakia during the war in Ukraine. BMC Public Health 24:583. doi: 10.1186/s12889-024-18075-y, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Kraemer H. C., Wilson G. T., Fairburn C. G., Agras W. S. (2002). Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 59, 877–883. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.59.10.877 PubMed DOI

Krafft A. M., Bosco J., Chukwuorji C., Choubisa R., Comte S., Fenouillet F., et al. . (2023). “Mastering the COVID-19 pandemic crisis: from anxiety to hope” in Hope across cultures. eds. Krafft A. M., Guse T., Slezackova A. (Cham: Springer; ), 327–405.

Krafft A. M., Guse T., Maree D. (2021). Distinguishing perceived hope and dispositional optimism: theoretical foundations and empirical findings beyond future expectancies and cognition. J. Well-Being Assess. 4, 217–243. doi: 10.1007/s41543-020-00030-4 DOI

Krafft A. M., Martin-Krumm C., Fenouillet F. (2017). Adaptation, further elaboration, and validation of a scale to measure hope as perceived by people. Assessment 26, 1594–1609. doi: 10.1177/1073191117700724 PubMed DOI

Krafft A. M., Walker A. M. (2018). “Exploring the concept and experience of hope–theoretical and methodological foundations” in Hope for a good life. Results of the Hope-barometer international research program. eds. Krafft A. M., Perrig-Chiello P., Walker A. (Cham: Springer; ), 3–19. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-78470-0_1 DOI

Kurapov A., Kalaitzaki A., Keller V., Danyliuk I., Kowatsch T. (2023). The mental health impact of the ongoing Russian-Ukrainian war 6 months after the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Front. Psych. 14:1134780. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1134780, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Kurapov A., Pavlenko V., Drozdov A., Bezliudna V., Reznik A., Isralowitz R. (2022). Toward an understanding of the Russian-Ukrainian war impact on university students and personnel. J. Loss Trauma 28, 167–174. doi: 10.1080/15325024.2022.2084838 DOI

Lee J. Y., Gallagher M. W. (2018). “Hope and well-being” in The Oxford handbook of hope. eds. Gallagher M. W., Lopez S. J. (Oxford: Oxford University Press; ), 287–298.

Linley P. A., Joseph S. (2004). Positive psychology in practice. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Linley P. A., Joseph S. (2011). Meaning in life and posttraumatic growth. J. Loss Trauma 16, 150–159. doi: 10.1080/15325024.2010.519287 DOI

Liu Z., Doege D., Thong M., Arndt V. (2020). The relationship between posttraumatic growth and health-related quality of life in adult cancer survivors: a systematic review. J. Affect. Disord. 276, 159–168. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.07.044, PMID: PubMed DOI

Long L., Phillips C., Glover N., Richardson A., D'Souza J., Cunningham-Erdogdu P., et al. . (2021). A meta-analytic review of the relationship between posttraumatic growth, anxiety, and depression. J. Happiness Stud. 22, 3703–3728. doi: 10.1007/s10902-021-00370-9 DOI

Mao W., Agyapong V. (2021). The role of social determinants in mental health and resilience after disasters: implications for public health policy and practice. Front. Publ. Health 9:658528. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.658528, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Marciano H., Eshel Y., Kimhi S., Adini B. (2022). Hope and fear of threats as predictors of coping with two major adversities, the Covid-19 pandemic and an armed conflict. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19:1123. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19031123, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Mark K. M., Stevelink S. A. M., Choi J., Fear N. T. (2018). Posttraumatic growth in the military: a systematic review. Occup. Environ. Med. 75, 904–915. doi: 10.1136/oemed-2018-105166 PubMed DOI

Marujo H. Á., Velez M. J., Gonçalves S. P., Neto L. M., Krafft A. M., Casais M. (2021). The value of hope: validation of the perceived hope scale in the Portuguese population. Curr. Psychol. 42, 7981–7989. doi: 10.1007/s12144-021-02115-6 DOI

Matos M., McEwan K., Kanovský M., Halamová J., Steindl S. R., Ferreira N., et al. . (2021). The role of social connection on the experience of COVID-19 related posttraumatic growth and stress. PLoS One 16:e0261384. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0261384, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Mattson E., James L., Engdahl B. (2018). Personality factors and their impact on PTSD and posttraumatic growth is mediated by coping style among OIF/OEF veterans. Milit. Med. 183, e475–e480. doi: 10.1093/milmed/usx201, PMID: PubMed DOI

McCullough M. E. (2002). Savoring life, past and present: explaining what hope and gratitude share in common. Psychol. Inq. 13, 302–304.

Montgomery G. H., David D., DiLorenzo T., Erblich J. (2003). Is hoping the same as expecting? Discrimination between hopes and response expectancies for nonvolitional outcomes. Pers. Individ. Diff. 35, 399–409. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00202-7, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Mottola F., Gnisci A., Kalaitzaki A., Vintilă M., Sergi I. (2023). The impact of the Russian-Ukrainian war on the mental health of Italian people after 2 years of the pandemic: risk and protective factors as moderators. Front. Psychol. 14:1154502. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154502, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Munroe M., Ferrari M. (2022). Posttraumatic growth to psychological well-being: Coping wisely with adversity. Lifelong Learning Book Series. Cham: Springer.

Murphy E. R. (2023). Hope and well-being. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 50:101558. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101558 PubMed DOI

Nolen-Hoeksema S., Davis C. G. (2002). “Positive responses to loss: perceiving benefits and growth” in Handbook of positive psychology. eds. Snyder C. R., Lopez S. J. (New York: Oxford University Press; ), 598–607.

Nunn B. V. (2005). “Getting clear what hope is” in Interdisciplinary perspectives on hope. ed. Eliott J. (New York: Nova Science; ), 63–78.

O'Connor R. C., Wetherall K., Cleare S., McClelland H., Melson A. J., Niedzwiedz C. L., et al. . (2021). Mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic: longitudinal analyses of adults in the UK COVID-19 Mental Health & Well-being study. Brit. J. Psychiatry 218, 326–333. doi: 10.1192/bjp.2020.212, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Pavlova I., Graf-Vlachy L., Petrytsa P., Wang S., Zhang S. (2022). Early evidence on the mental health of Ukrainian civilian and professional combatants during the Russian invasion. Eur. Psychiatry 65:e79. doi: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.2335, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Peterson C., Seligman M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Pięta M., Rzeszutek M. (2022). Posttraumatic growth and well-being among people living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis in recognition of 40 years of HIV/AIDS. Qual. Life Res. 31, 1269–1288. doi: 10.1007/s11136-021-02990-3, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Pleeging E., Burger M., van Exel J. (2021). The relations between hope and subjective well-being: a literature overview and empirical analysis. Appl. Res. Qual. Life 16, 1019–1041. doi: 10.1007/s11482-019-09802-4 DOI

Plomecka M., Gobbi S., Neckels R., Radzinski P., Skorko B., Lazzeri S., et al. . (2021). Factors associated with psychological disturbances during the Covid-19 pandemic: multi-country online study. JMIR Mental Health 8:e28736. doi: 10.2196/28736, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Prati G., Pietrantoni L. (2009). Optimism, social support, and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: a meta-analysis. J. Loss Trauma 14, 364–388. doi: 10.1080/15325020902724271 DOI

Raccanello D., Burro R., Aristovnik A., Ravšelj D., Umek L., Vicentini G., et al. . (2024). Coping and emotions of global higher education students to the Ukraine war worldwide. Sci. Rep. 14:8561. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-59009-3, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Riad A., Drobov A., Alkasaby M. A., Peřina A., Koščík M. (2023). Nuclear anxiety amid the Russian-Ukrainian war 2022 (RUW-22): descriptive cross-sectional study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 20:3551. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20043551, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Riad A., Drobov A., Krobot M., Antalová N., Alkasaby M. A., Peřina A., et al. . (2022). Mental health burden of the Russian-Ukrainian war 2022 (RUW-22): anxiety and depression levels among young adults in Central Europe. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19:8418. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19148418, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Richardson A. L. (2023). Hope and anxiety. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 53:101664. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101664 PubMed DOI

Rosseel Y. (2012). Lavaan: an R package for structural equation modeling and more. Version 0.5–12 (BETA). J. Statist. Softw. 48, 1–36. doi: 10.18637/jss.v048.i02 DOI

Satheesan S., Hameed N. (2017). Personality traits and post-traumatic growth among females living with HIV/AIDS. Ind. J. Health Wellbeing 8, 1147–1150.

Satorra A., Bentler P. M. (1994). “Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis.” In Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research, ed. von Eye A., Clogg C. C. (Cham: Sage Publications; ), 399–419.

Scharbert J., Humberg S., Kroencke L., Reiter T., Sakel S., ter Horst J., et al. . (2024). Psychological well-being in Europe after the outbreak of war in Ukraine. Nat. Commun. 15:1202. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-44693-6, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Scioli A., Biller H. B. (2009). Hope in the age of anxiety: A guide to understanding and strengthening our most important virtue. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Senger A. R., Gallagher M. W. (2024). The unique effects of hope and gratitude on psychological distress and well-being in trauma-exposed Hispanic/Latino adults. Psychol. Trauma 16, 488–495. doi: 10.1037/tra0001550, PMID: PubMed DOI

Shakespeare-Finch J., Lurie-Beck J. (2014). A meta-analytic clarification of the relationship between posttraumatic growth and symptoms of posttraumatic distress disorder. J. Anxiety Disord. 28, 223–229. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.10.005 PubMed DOI

Sheather J. (2022). As Russian troops cross into Ukraine, we need to remind ourselves of the impact of war on health. BMJ 376:o499. doi: 10.1136/bmj.o499, PMID: PubMed DOI

Singh K., Jain A., Kaur J., Junnarkar M., Slezackova A. (2016). Cross-cultural differences on Gunas and other well-being dimensions. Asian J. Psychiatry 24, 139–146. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2016.09.001, PMID: PubMed DOI

Skwirczyńska E., Kozłowski M., Nowak K., Wróblewski O., Sompolska-Rzechuła A., Kwiatkowski S., et al. . (2022). Anxiety assessment in polish students during the Russian-Ukrainian war. Int. J. Envi. Res. Publ. Health 19:13284. doi: 10.3390/ijerph192013284, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Slezackova A. (2017). Hope and well-being: Psychosocial correlates and benefits. Valletta: University of Malta.

Slezackova A., Prošek T., Malatincová T., Krafft A. M. (2020). Psychometrické vlastnosti české verze Škály prožívané naděje: faktorová struktura a vnitřní konzistence [psychometric characteristics of the Czech version of the perceived Hope scale: factor structure and internal consistency]. Československá Psychol. 64, 288–305.

Snyder C. R. (2000). Handbook of hope: Theory, measures and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Spitzer R. L., Kroenke K., Williams J. B. W., Löwe B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch. Intern. Med. 166, 1092–1097. doi: 10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092 PubMed DOI

Stallard P., Pereira A. I., Barros L. (2021). Posttraumatic growth during the COVID-19 pandemic in carers of children in Portugal and the UK: cross-sectional online survey. BJ Psych. Open 7:e37. doi: 10.1192/bjo.2021.1, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Stasielowicz L. (2022). Adaptive performance in refugees after trauma: how relevant are posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth? Int. J. Workplace Health Manag. 15, 711–727. doi: 10.1108/IJWHM-12-2021-0230 DOI

Stein J. Y., Levin Y., Bachem R., Solomon Z. (2018). Growing apart: a longitudinal assessment of the relation between posttraumatic growth and loneliness among combat veterans. Front. Psychol. 9:893. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00893, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Sympson S. C. (2000). “Rediscovering hope: understanding and working with survivors of trauma” in Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications. ed. Snyder C. R. (San Diego, CA: Academic Press; ), 285–300. doi: 10.1016/B978-012654050-5/50017-8 DOI

Tedeschi R. G., Calhoun L. G. (1995). Trauma and transformation: Growing in the aftermath of suffering. Cham: Sage Publications, Inc.

Tedeschi R. G., Calhoun L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: measuring the positive legacy of trauma. J. Traum Stress 9, 455–471. doi: 10.1002/jts.2490090305, PMID: PubMed DOI

Tedeschi R. G., Calhoun L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychol. Inq. 15, 1–18. doi: 10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01 DOI

Tedeschi R. G., Calhoun L. G. (2006). “Foundations of posttraumatic growth” in Handbook of posttraumatic growth. eds. Tedeschi R. G., Calhoun L. G. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc; ), 3–23.

The Lancet Regional Health–Europe (2022). The regional and global impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Lancet Reg. Health Eur. 15:100379. doi: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2022.100379, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Ulset V. S., von Soest T. (2022). Posttraumatic growth during the COVID-19 lockdown: a large-scale population-based study among Norwegian adolescents. J. Traum Stress 35, 941–954. doi: 10.1002/jts.22801, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Uwishema O., Sujanamulk B., Abbass M., Fawaz R., Javed A., Aboudib K., et al. . (2022). Russia-Ukraine conflict and COVID-19: a double burden for Ukraine's healthcare system and a concern for global citizens. Postgrad. Med. J. 98, 569–571. doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2022-141895, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Vuorio A., Sajantila A., Kovanen P. T., Budowle B. (2022). Maleficent comrades: war in Ukraine and COVID-19. Disaster Med. Publ. Health Prepare 17:e280. doi: 10.1017/dmp.2022.227, PMID: PubMed DOI

Wild N. D., Paivio S. C. (2003). Psychological adjustment, coping, and emotion regulation as predictors of posttraumatic growth. J. Aggress. Maltreat. Trauma 8, 97–122. doi: 10.1300/J146v08n04_05 DOI

Witvliet C. V. O., Richie F. J., Root Luna L. M., Van Tongeren D. R. (2018). Gratitude predicts hope and happiness: a two-study assessment of traits and states. J. Posit. Psychol. 14, 271–282. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2018.1424924 DOI

Wu X., Kaminga A., Dai W., Deng J., Wang Z., Pan X., et al. . (2019). The prevalence of moderate-to-high posttraumatic growth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 243, 408–415. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.09.023, PMID: PubMed DOI

Xu W., Pavlova I., Chen X., Petrytsa P., Graf-Vlachy L., Zhang S. X. (2023). Mental health symptoms and coping strategies among Ukrainians during the Russia-Ukraine war in march 2022. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 69, 957–966. doi: 10.1177/00207640221143919, PMID: PubMed DOI

Yan S., Yang J., Ye M., Chen S., Xie C., Huang J., et al. . (2021). Posttraumatic growth and related influencing factors in discharged COVID-19 patients: a cross-sectional study. Front. Psychol. 12:658307. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.658307, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Yurtsenyuk O., Sumariuk B. (2023). Impact of the war on the mental health of Ukrainians: factors in formation of neurotic and stress-associated mental disorders. Current state of the issue. Art Med. 26, 248–251. doi: 10.21802/artm.2023.2.26.248 DOI

Zaliska O., Oleshchuk O., Forman R., Mossialoset E. (2022). Health impacts of the Russian invasion in Ukraine: need for global health action. Lancet 399, 1450–1452. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00615-8, PMID: PubMed DOI

Zhang X., Wang Y., Lyu H., Zhang Y., Liu Y., Luo J. (2021). The influence of COVID-19 on the well-being of people: big data methods for capturing the well-being of working adults and protective factors nationwide. Front. Psychol. 12:681091. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.681091, PMID: PubMed DOI PMC

Navigating dual crises: mental health of Czech health care workers during the Ukrainian refugee influx and COVID-19 pandemic