Understanding how large carnivores utilize space is crucial for management planning in human-dominated landscape and enhances the accuracy of population size estimates. However, Eurasian lynx display a large inter-population variation in the size of home ranges across their European range which makes extrapolation to broader areas of a species distribution problematic. This study evaluates variations in home range size for 35 Eurasian lynx in the Western Carpathians during 2011-2022 based on GPS telemetry and explains how intrinsic and environmental factors shape lynx spatial behaviour when facing anthropogenic pressure. The average annual home range size of lynx ranged from 283 (± 42 SE) to 360 (± 60 SE) km2 for males and from 148 (± 50 SE) to 190 (± 70 SE) km2 for females, depending on home range estimator (95% MCP, KDE and AKDE). Females with kittens had smaller annual and summer home ranges compared to non-reproducing females and subadults had smaller home ranges compared to adults. Lynx home range size was explained by availability of roe deer, except for summer, when alternative prey was likely available. We also found clear evidence of human-induced changes in lynx home range size, in particular, forest cover significantly decreased the home range size of male lynx during summer while road density led to an expansion of both annual and summer lynx home ranges. Lynx exhibited consistent fidelity to their home ranges throughout consecutive seasons, showing no seasonal variations. Strong territoriality was observed among competing males maintaining relatively low home range overlaps and considerable distances between centres of activity. The most pronounced tendency for association was observed between males and females, maintaining relatively close proximity year-round. The insights into lynx spatial requirements provided by our study will greatly enhance the accuracy of population size estimates and effectiveness of mitigation measures across the Western Carpathians.

Association for Nature Wolf Cynkowa 4 34 324 Twardorzeczka Poland

Carpathian Wildlife Society Námestie Slobody 19 960 01 Zvolen Slovakia

Department of Applied Zoology and Wildlife Management Faculty of Forestry Technical University in Zvolen T G Masaryka 24 960 01 Zvolen Slovakia

Department of Ecology Biological and Chemical Research Centre Faculty of Biology Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology University of Warsaw Żwierki i Wigury 101 02 089 Warszawa Poland

Department of Forest Ecology Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Mendel University in Brno Zemědělská 1 613 00 Brno Czech Republic

Department of Phytology Faculty of Forestry Technical University in Zvolen T G Masaryka 24 960 01 Zvolen Slovakia

Department of Zoology Fisheries Hydrobiology and Apiculture Faculty of AgriSciences Mendel University in Brno Zemědělská 1 613 00 Brno Czech Republic

DIANA Carpathian Wildlife Research Centre Mládežnícka 47 974 04 Banská Bystrica Slovakia

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Kamýcká 1070 165 00 Prague Suchdol Czech Republic

Friends of the Earth Czech Republic Carnivore Conservation Programme Dolní náměstí 38 77900 Olomouc Czech Republic

Institute of Animal Husbandry Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources Slovak University of Agriculture Tr A Hlinku 2 949 76 Nitra Slovakia

Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Květná 8 603 65 Brno Czech Republic

Muránska Planina National Park with Headquarters in Revúca Ul Janka Kráľa 12 050 01 Revúca Slovakia

National Forest Centre Forest Research Institute T G Masaryka 2175 22 960 01 Zvolen Slovakia

National Zoological Garden Bojnice Zámok a Okolie 939 6 972 01 Bojnice Slovakia

State Nature Conservancy of Slovak Republic Landscape Area Strážov Mountains Administration Orlové 189 017 01 Považská Bystrica Slovakia

State Nature Conservancy of the Slovak Republic Tajovského 28B 974 01 Banská Bystrica Slovakia

Wildlife Science Faculty of Forest Science and Forest Ecology University of Goettingen Büsgenweg 5 37077 Göttingen Germany

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