The estimation of foraging parameters is fundamental for understanding predator ecology. Predation and feeding can vary with multiple factors, such as prey availability, presence of kleptoparasites and human disturbance. However, our knowledge is mostly limited to local scales, which prevents studying effects of environmental factors across larger ecological gradients. Here, we compared inter-kill intervals and handling times of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) across a large latitudinal gradient, from subarctic to the Mediterranean ecosystems, using a standardised dataset of predicted adult ungulate kills from 107 GPS-collared lynx from nine distinct populations in Europe. We analysed variations in these two foraging parameters in relation to proxies reflecting prey availability, scavengers' presence and human disturbance, to improve our understanding of lynx predation at a continental scale. We found that inter-kill intervals and handling times varied between populations, social status and in different seasons within the year. We observed marked differences in inter-kill intervals between populations, which do not appear to be driven by variation in handling time. Increases in habitat productivity (expressed by NDVI, used as a proxy for prey availability) resulted in reduced inter-kill intervals (i.e. higher kill rates). We observed less variation in handling (i.e. feeding) times, although presence of dominant scavengers (wild boars and brown bears) and higher human impact led to significantly shorter handling times. This suggests that kleptoparasitism and human disturbance may limit the energetic input that lynx can obtain from their prey. We also observed that the human impact on foraging parameters can be consistent between some populations but context-dependent for others, suggesting local adaptations by lynx. Our study highlights the value of large-scale studies based on standardised datasets, which can aid the implementation of effective management measures, as patterns observed in one area might not be necessarily transferable to other regions. Our results also indicate the high degree of adaptability of these solitary felids, which enables them to meet their energy requirements and persist across a wide range of environmental conditions despite the constraints imposed by humans, dominant scavengers and variable prey availability.

Administration of the Muránska Planina National Park with Headquarters in Revúca Revúca Slovakia

Biotechnical Faculty University of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia

Carnivore Conservation Programme Friends of the Earth Czech Republic Olomouc Czech Republic

Chair of Wildlife Ecology and Management Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany

College of Sciences Koc University Istanbul Turkey

Department of Biodiversity Ecology and Evolution Faculty of Biological Sciences Complutense University of Madrid Madrid Spain

Department of Forest Ecology Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences Koppang Norway

Department of Hunting and Wildlife Management Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava Salaspils Latvia

Department of National Park Monitoring and Animal Management Bavarian Forest National Park Grafenau Germany

Department of Research and Nature Protection Šumava National Park Administration Kašperské Hory Czech Republic

Department of Zoology Fisheries Hydrobiology and Apiculture Faculty of AgriSciences Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic

DIANA Carpathian Wildlife Research Banská Bystrica Slovakia

Estonian Environment Agency Tartu Estonia

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Prague Czech Republic

Faculty of Forestry Department of Applied Zoology and Wildlife Management Technical University in Zvolen Zvolen Slovakia

Forest Research Institute Baden Wuerttemberg Breisgau Germany

Foundation KORA Ittigen Switzerland

Geography Department Humboldt Universität zu Berlin Berlin Germany

Institute of Animal Husbandry Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources Slovak University of Agriculture Nitra Slovakia

Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Brno Czech Republic

Italian Lynx Project Tarvisio Italy

Karlovac University of Applied Sciences Karlovac Croatia

Macedonian Ecological Society Skopje North Macedonia

Norwegian Institute for Nature Research Oslo Norway

Norwegian Institute for Nature Research Trondheim Norway

Slovenia Forest Service Ljubljana Slovenia

State Nature Conservancy of Slovak Republic Landscape Area Strážov Mountains Administration Považská Bystrica Slovakia

University of Tartu Tartu Estonia

Veterinary Faculty University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia

Zoological Department National Zoological Garden Bojnice Bojnice Slovakia

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Ecological and intrinsic drivers of foraging parameters of Eurasian lynx at a continental scale