The genus Acinetobacter is widely distributed in nature. A key step in the evolutionary trajectory of Acinetobacter is the diversification of species that are well adapted to human-made environments, particularly hospitals, including those capable of causing infection outbreaks. The temporal dynamics, routes and mechanisms of such nosocomial adaptations remain to be elucidated. This review provides a comprehensive description of 162 Acinetobacter isolates collected between 1910 and 1970 under various taxonomic names, which may facilitate a more detailed exploration of the pathogenic and nosocomial shifts of Acinetobacter. Genomic analysis of these isolates can help reveal the earliest traits of antimicrobial resistance and detect initial genetic events, thereby allowing hypotheses on driving factors that may have preceded the extensive use of modern antimicrobials. Through comparison with contemporary isolates, the evolutionary events and ecological processes that have shaped the phylogeny of today's highly successful Acinetobacter strains can be mapped, and their arsenals of antimicrobial resistance determinants and virulence factors can be tracked chronologically.

Department of Medical Microbiology 2nd Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Motol University Hospital 5 Úvalu 84 150 06 Prague 5 Czechia

Department of Molecular Biology and Umeå Centre for Microbial Research Umeå University 901 87 Umeå Sweden

Laboratory of Bacterial Genetics Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology National Institute of Public Health Šrobárova 48 100 00 Prague 10 Czechia

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Rossau R, Van Landschoot A, Gillis M, De Ley J. Taxonomy of Moraxellaceae fam. nov., a new bacterial family to accommodate the genera Moraxella, Acinetobacter, and Psychrobacter and related organisms. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1991;41:310–319. doi: 10.1099/00207713-41-2-310. DOI

Baumann P, Doudoroff M, Stanier RY. A study of the Moraxella group. II. Oxidative-negative species (genus Acinetobacter) J Bacteriol. 1968;95:1520–1541. doi: 10.1128/jb.95.5.1520-1541.1968. PubMed DOI PMC

Nemec A. In: Bergey’s Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria. Trujillo ME, Dedysh S, DeVos P, Hedlund B, Kämpfer P, et al., editors. Wiley, in Association with Bergey’s Manual Trust; 2022. Acinetobacter.

Bergogne-Bérézin E, Towner KJ. Acinetobacter spp. as nosocomial pathogens: microbiological, clinical, and epidemiological features. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1996;9:148–165. doi: 10.1128/CMR.9.2.148. PubMed DOI PMC

Henriksen SD. Moraxella, Acinetobacter, and the Mimeae. Bacteriol Rev. 1973;37:522–561. doi: 10.1128/br.37.4.522-561.1973. PubMed DOI PMC

Lucidi M, Hristu R, Nichele L, Stanciu GA, Visca P, et al. Characterization of Acinetobacter baumannii filamentous cells by re-scan confocal microscopy and complementary fluorometric approaches. IEEE J Select Topics Quantum Electron. 2021;27:1–7. doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2020.3048476. DOI

Peleg AY, Seifert H, Paterson DL. Acinetobacter baumannii: emergence of a successful pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008;21:538–582. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00058-07. PubMed DOI PMC

Touchon M, Cury J, Yoon E-J, Krizova L, Cerqueira GC, et al. The genomic diversification of the whole Acinetobacter genus: origins, mechanisms, and consequences. Genome Biol Evol. 2014;6:2866–2882. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evu225. PubMed DOI PMC

Garcia-Garcera M, Touchon M, Brisse S, Rocha EPC. Metagenomic assessment of the interplay between the environment and the genetic diversification of Acinetobacter. Environ Microbiol. 2017;19:5010–5024. doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.13949. PubMed DOI PMC

Carvalheira A, Silva J, Teixeira P. Acinetobacter spp. in food and drinking water - a review. Food Microbiol. 2021;95:103675. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2020.103675. PubMed DOI

López-Sánchez R, Aguilar-Vera A, Castillo-Ramírez S. Metagenome-assembled genomes reveal novel diversity and atypical sources of a superbug. Microbiol Spectr. 2025;13:e0010625. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.00106-25. PubMed DOI PMC

List of prokaryotic names with standing in nomenclature Genus Acinetobacter. [29-April-2024]. https://www.bacterio.net/genus/acinetobacter n.d. accessed.

Classification and nomenclature of species in the genus Acinetobacter. [29-April-2024]. https://szu.gov.cz/wp-content/anemec/Classification.pdf n.d. accessed.

Mateo-Estrada V, Graña-Miraglia L, López-Leal G, Castillo-Ramírez S. Phylogenomics reveals clear cases of misclassification and genus-wide phylogenetic markers for Acinetobacter. Genome Biol Evol. 2019;11:2531–2541. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evz178. PubMed DOI PMC

Sheck E, Romanov A, Shapovalova V, Shaidullina E, Martinovich A, et al. Acinetobacter non-baumannii species: occurrence in infections in hospitalized patients, identification, and antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics. 2023;12:1301. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12081301. PubMed DOI PMC

Brisou J, Prévot AR. Etudes de systématique bactérienne. X. Révision des especes réunies dans le genre Achromobacter [Studies on bacterial taxonomy. X. The revision of species under Achromobacter group] Ann Inst Pasteur. 1954;86:722–728. PubMed

Sneath PHA, McGowan V, Skerman VBD. Approved lists of bacterial names. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 1980;30:225–420. doi: 10.1099/00207713-30-1-225. DOI

Sneath PHA, Clark WA, Lessel EF, Lapage SP, Seeliger HPR. Proposed revision of the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 1973;23:83–108. doi: 10.1099/00207713-23-1-83. DOI

Lapage SP, Sneath PHA, Lessel EF, Skerman VBD, Seeliger HPR., editors. International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria. Washington, D.C: American Society of Microbiology; 1975.

Seifert H, Dijkshoorn L. In: Acinetobacter Biology and Pathogenesis. Infectious Agents and Pathogenesis. Bergogne-Bérézin E, Friedman H, Bendinelli M, editors. New York: Springer; 2008. Overview of the microbial characteristics, taxonomy, and epidemiology of Acinetobacter; pp. 19–45. DOI

Beijerinck MW. Pigments as products of oxidation by bacterial action. Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 13 II; Amsterdam: 1911. pp. 1066–1077.

Bouvet PJM, Grimont PAD. Taxonomy of the genus Acinetobacter with the recognition of Acinetobacter baumannii sp. nov., Acinetobacter haemolyticus sp. nov., Acinetobacter johnsonii sp. nov., and Acinetobacter junii sp. nov. and emended descriptions of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and Acinetobacter lwoffii. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1986;36:228–240. doi: 10.1099/00207713-36-2-228. DOI

Nemec A, Krizova L, Maixnerova M, van der Reijden TJK, Deschaght P, et al. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-Acinetobacter baumannii complex with the proposal of Acinetobacter pittii sp. nov. (formerly Acinetobacter genomic species 3) and Acinetobacter nosocomialis sp. nov. (formerly Acinetobacter genomic species 13TU) Res Microbiol. 2011;162:393–404. doi: 10.1016/j.resmic.2011.02.006. PubMed DOI

National collection of industrial, food and marine bacteria [29-April-2024]. https://store.ncimb.com/page/Strains_table1 n.d. accessed.

Belgian coordinated collections of microorganisms [29-April-2024]. https://bccm.belspo.be/LMG-catalogue-search n.d. accessed.

Van Landschoot A, Rossau R, De Ley J. Intra- and intergeneric similarities of the ribosomal ribonucleic acid cistrons of Acinetobacter. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1986;36:150–160. doi: 10.1099/00207713-36-2-150. DOI

Diancourt L, Passet V, Nemec A, Dijkshoorn L, Brisse S. The population structure of Acinetobacter baumannii: expanding multiresistant clones from an ancestral susceptible genetic pool. PLoS One. 2010;5:e10034. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010034. PubMed DOI PMC

American type culture collection [29-April-2024]. https://www.atcc.org/products n.d. accessed.

Dijkshoorn L, Tjernberg I, Pot B, Michel MF, Ursing J, et al. Numerical analysis of cell envelope protein profiles of Acinetobacter strains classified by DNA-DNA hybridization. Syst Appl Microbiol. 1990;13:338–344. doi: 10.1016/S0723-2020(11)80230-4. DOI

Snelling AM, Gerner-Smidt P, Hawkey PM, Heritage J, Parnell P, et al. Validation of use of whole-cell repetitive extragenic palindromic sequence-based PCR (REP-PCR) for typing strains belonging to the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-Acinetobacter baumannii complex and application of the method to the investigation of a hospital outbreak. J Clin Microbiol. 1996;34:1193–1202. doi: 10.1128/jcm.34.5.1193-1202.1996. PubMed DOI PMC

Vaneechoutte M, Dijkshoorn L, Tjernberg I, Elaichouni A, de Vos P, et al. Identification of Acinetobacter genomic species by amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33:11–15. doi: 10.1128/jcm.33.1.11-15.1995. PubMed DOI PMC

Gerner-Smidt P. Ribotyping of the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-Acinetobacter baumannii complex. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30:2680–2685. doi: 10.1128/jcm.30.10.2680-2685.1992. PubMed DOI PMC

Henriksen SD. Moraxella: classification and taxonomy. J Gen Microbiol. 1952;6:318–328. doi: 10.1099/00221287-6-3-4-318. PubMed DOI

Lwoff A. Revision and dismemberment of hemophilae, the genus Moraxella nov. gen. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1939;62:168.

Breed RS, Murray EGD, Hitchens AP, editors. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 6th ed. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company; 1948.

Audureau A. Study of the genus Moraxella. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1940;64:126–166.

Steel KJ, Cowan ST. The link of Bacterium anitratum, Moraxella lwoffi, Bacillus mallei and Haemophilus parapertussis to the Acinetobacter Brisou and Prévot genus. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1964;106:479–483. PubMed

Nemec A, Radolfová-Křížová L, Maixnerová M, Nemec M, Clermont D, et al. Revising the taxonomy of the Acinetobacter lwoffii group: the description of Acinetobacter pseudolwoffii sp. nov. and emended description of Acinetobacter lwoffii. Syst Appl Microbiol. 2019;42:159–167. doi: 10.1016/j.syapm.2018.10.004. PubMed DOI

Catalogue of microorganisms of the Biological Resource Center of Institut Pasteur [29-April-2024]. https://catalogue-crbip.pasteur.fr/recherche_catalogue.xhtml n.d. accessed.

Alexander M, Ismail F, Jackman PJ, Noble WC. Fingerprinting Acinetobacter strains from clinical sources by numerical analysis of electrophoretic protein patterns. J Med Microbiol. 1984;18:55–64. doi: 10.1099/00222615-18-1-55. PubMed DOI

Gerner-Smidt P, Tjernberg I, Ursing J. Reliability of phenotypic tests for identification of Acinetobacter species. J Clin Microbiol. 1991;29:277–282. doi: 10.1128/jcm.29.2.277-282.1991. PubMed DOI PMC

Tjernberg I, Ursing J. Clinical strains of Acinetobacter classified by DNA-DNA hybridization. APMIS. 1989;97:595–605. doi: 10.1111/j.1699-0463.1989.tb00449.x. PubMed DOI

Johnson JL, Anderson RS, Ordal EJ. Nucleic acid homologies among oxidase-negative Moraxella species. J Bacteriol. 1970;101:568–573. doi: 10.1128/jb.101.2.568-573.1970. PubMed DOI PMC

Brisou J. Contribution a l'étude de la systématique des Pseudomonadaceae [Classification of Pseudomonadaceae] Ann Inst Pasteur. 1957;93:397–404. PubMed

Happold FC, Key A. The bacterial purification of gasworks’ liquors: the action of the liquors on the bacterial flora of sewage. J Hyg. 1932;32:573–580. doi: 10.1017/s0022172400018295. PubMed DOI PMC

Dagley S, Fewster ME, Happold FC. The bacterial oxidation of phenylacetic acid. J Bacteriol. 1952;63:327–336. doi: 10.1128/jb.63.3.327-336.1952. PubMed DOI PMC

Evans WC. Oxidation of phenol and benzoic acid by some soil bacteria. Biochem J. 1947;41:373–382. doi: 10.1042/bj0410373. PubMed DOI PMC

Cain RB. The metabolism of protocatechuic acid by a vibrio. Biochem J. 1961;79:298–312. doi: 10.1042/bj0790298. PubMed DOI PMC

Fewson CA. The identity of the gram-negative bacterium NCIB 8250 (‘Vibrio 01’) J Gen Microbiol. 1967;48:107–110. doi: 10.1099/00221287-48-1-107. PubMed DOI

Hodgson B, McGarry JD. A direct pathway for the conversion of propionate into pyruvate in Moraxella lwoffi. Biochem J. 1968;107:7–18. doi: 10.1042/bj1070007. PubMed DOI PMC

Sebald M, Veron M. Base DNA content and classification of vibrios. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1963;105:897–910. PubMed

Fewson CA. The growth and metabolic versatility of the gram-negative Bacterium NCIB 8250 (“Vibrio 01”) J Gen Microbiol. 1967;46:255–266. doi: 10.1099/00221287-46-2-255. PubMed DOI

Nemec A, Musílek M, Šedo O, De Baere T, Maixnerová M, et al. Acinetobacter bereziniae sp. nov. and Acinetobacter guillouiae sp. nov., to accommodate Acinetobacter genomic species 10 and 11, respectively. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2010;60:896–903. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.013656-0. PubMed DOI

Yoon E-J, Goussard S, Touchon M, Krizova L, Cerqueira G, et al. Origin in Acinetobacter guillouiae and dissemination of the aminoglycoside-modifying enzyme Aph(3′)-VI. mBio . 2014;5:e01972–14. doi: 10.1128/mBio.01972-14. PubMed DOI PMC

Allen DA, Austin B, Colwell RR. Numerical taxonomy of bacterial isolates associated with a freshwater fishery. Microbiology. 1983;129:2043–2062. doi: 10.1099/00221287-129-7-2043. DOI

Conn HJ. Validity of the genus Alcaligenes. J Bacteriol. 1942;44:353–360. doi: 10.1128/jb.44.3.353-360.1942. PubMed DOI PMC

Petruschky J. Bacillus faecalis alcaligenes (n. sp) Zentbl Bakteriol Parasitenk Infektionskr Hyg Abt I. 1896;19:187–191.

Mez CC. Mikroskopische Wasseranalyse: Antleitung Zur Untersuchung Des Wassers Mit Besonderer Berucksichtigung von Trink- Und Abwasser. Berlin: J Springer; 1898. p. 61. p.

Lehmann KB, Neumann RO. Atlas and Principles of Bacteriology and Text-Book of Special Bacteriologic Diagnosis. W. B. Saunders & Company; 1901.

Castellani A, Chalmers A. Manual of Tropical Medicine, 3rd ed. London, Balliere: Tyndall and Cox; 1919.

Bergey DH, Harrison FC, Breed RS, Hammer BW, Huntoon FM., editors. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology: A Key for the Identification of Organisms of the Class Schizomycetes. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company; 1923.

Adametz L. Ueber einen Erreger der schleimigen Milch (Bacillus lactis viscosus) [About a pathogen of slimy milk (Bacillus lactis viscosus)] Milch Zeitung. 1889;18:941–943.

Adametz L. Untersuchungen über Bacillus lactis viscosus, einen weitverbreiteten milchwirtschaftlichen Schädling. Centralblatt für Bakteriologie und Parasitenkunde. 1891;IX. Band:698–700.

Conn HW, Esten WM, Stocking WA. Eighteenth Annual Report of the Storrs Agriculture Experiment Station. Storrs, Conn: 1906. Classification of dairy bacteria ; pp. 91–201. DOI

Hugh R. The Genus Alcaligenes and Related Organisms. Loyola University Chicago Dissertations; 1953. p. 441. p.

Marshall CE. A preliminary note on the associative action of bacteria in the souring of milk. Zentr Bakt Parasitenk II Abt. 1904;11:739–744.

Buchanan RE, Hammer BW. Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Research Bulletin no. 22; 1915. Slimy and ropy milk.

Breed RS, Murray EGD, Smith NR., editors. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 7th ed. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company; 1957.

Lehmann KB, Neumann RO. Atlas Und Grundriss Der Bakteriologie Und Lehrbuch Der Speziellen Bakteriologischen Diagnostik. München: J. F. Lehmann; 1896.

Weldin JC, Levine M. An artificial key to the species and varieties of the colon-typhoid or intestinal group of bacteria. Abs Bact. 1923;7:13–16.

Henriksen SD. Studies on the bacterial flora of the respiratory tract in acute and chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma and lung gangrene. Skr Norske Vidensk akad, I. Mat Nat K1. 11. 1937

Sneath PHA, Skerman VBD. A list of type and reference strains of bacteria. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1966;16:1–134. doi: 10.1099/00207713-16-1-1. DOI

Lapage SP, Hill LR, Midgley J, Shelton JE. Annotations from the NCTC on the list of type and reference strains of bacteria, Sneath and Skerman 1966. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1967;17:93–103. doi: 10.1099/00207713-17-2-93. DOI

Long HF, Hammer BW. Studies on Alcaligenes viscosus. Iowa State Coll J Sci. 1936;10:261–265.

Garvie EI, Cheeseman GC. Alcaligenes haemolysans. Nature. 1958;181:1540–1541. doi: 10.1038/1811540a0. PubMed DOI

Bergey DH, Harrison FC, Breed RS, Hammer BW, Huntoon FM., editors. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 2nd ed. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co; 1925. p. 462. p.

Surdy TE, Hartsell SE. Correlation of speciation with lytic responses of the Achromobacter. J Bacteriol. 1963;85:1011–1016. doi: 10.1128/jb.85.5.1011-1016.1963. PubMed DOI PMC

Allen PJ, Naghski J, Hoover SR. Decomposition of guayule resins by microorganisms. J Bacteriol. 1944;47:559–572. doi: 10.1128/jb.47.6.559-572.1944. PubMed DOI PMC

Repizo GD, Viale AM, Borges V, Cameranesi MM, Taib N, et al. The environmental Acinetobacter baumannii isolate DSM30011 reveals clues into the preantibiotic era genome diversity, virulence potential, and niche range of a predominant nosocomial pathogen. Genome Biol Evol. 2017;9:2292–2307. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evx162. PubMed DOI PMC

Repizo GD, Espariz M, Seravalle JL, Díaz Miloslavich JI, Steimbrüch BA, et al. Acinetobacter baumannii NCIMB8209: a rare environmental strain displaying extensive insertion sequence-mediated genome remodeling resulting in the loss of exposed cell structures and defensive mechanisms. mSphere. 2020;5:e00404-20. doi: 10.1128/mSphere.00404-20. PubMed DOI PMC

Hendrie MS, Hodgkiss W, Shewan JM. Considerations on organisms of the Achromobacter–Alcaligenes group. Ann Inst Pasteur Lille. 1964;15:43–59. PubMed

De Bord GG. Descriptions of Mimeae tribe nov. with three genera and three species and two new species of Neisseria from conjunctivitis and vaginitis. Iowa State College J Sci. 1942;16:471–480.

De Bord GG. Studies on the tribes Mimeae, Neisserieae and Streptococcaceae which confuse the diagnosis of gonorrhoea by smears. Jour Lab Clin Med. 1943;28:710.

Deacon WE. A note on the tribe Mimeae (De Bord) J Bacteriol. 1945;49:511–512. doi: 10.1128/jb.49.5.511-512.1945. PubMed DOI PMC

Hugh R, Reese R. A comparison of 120 strains of Bacterium anitratum Schaub and Hauber with the type strain of this species. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 1968;18:207–229. doi: 10.1099/00207713-18-3-207. DOI

Juni E. Interspecies transformation of Acinetobacter: genetic evidence for a ubiquitous genus. J Bacteriol. 1972;112:917–931. doi: 10.1128/jb.112.2.917-931.1972. PubMed DOI PMC

La Scola B, Gundi VAKB, Khamis A, Raoult D. Sequencing of the rpoB gene and flanking spacers for molecular identification of Acinetobacter species. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44:827–832. doi: 10.1128/JCM.44.3.827-832.2006. PubMed DOI PMC

Ovrebo S, Kleppe K. Pyrimidine metabolism in Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. J Bacteriol. 1973;116:331–336. doi: 10.1128/jb.116.1.331-336.1973. PubMed DOI PMC

Möllenkvist A, Nordström T, Halldén C, Christensen JJ, Forsgren A, et al. The Moraxella catarrhalis immunoglobulin D-binding protein MID has conserved sequences and is regulated by a mechanism corresponding to phase variation. J Bacteriol. 2003;185:2285–2295. doi: 10.1128/JB.185.7.2285-2295.2003. PubMed DOI PMC

Szturm-Rubinsten S, Chabbert Y, Thibault P. Haemophilus bronchisepticus and Alcaligenes faecalis. II. Sensitivity to antibiotics. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1955;88:250–254. PubMed

Thibault P, Szturm-Rubinsten S, Piéchaud-Bourbon D. Haemophilus bronchisepticus and Alcaligenes faecalis. I. Some differential characters. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1955;88:246–250. PubMed

Schaub IG, Hauber FD. A biochemical and serological study of a group of identical unidentifiable gram-negative bacilli from human sources. J Bacteriol. 1948;56:379–385. doi: 10.1128/jb.56.4.379-385.1948. PubMed DOI PMC

Thornley MJ. A taxonomic study of Acinetobacter and related genera. J Gen Microbiol. 1967;49:211–257. doi: 10.1099/00221287-49-2-211. PubMed DOI

Hugh R, Reese R. Designation of the type strain for Bacterium anitratum Schaub and Hauber 1948. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1967;17:245–254. doi: 10.1099/00207713-17-3-245. DOI

Bartual SG, Seifert H, Hippler C, Luzon MAD, Wisplinghoff H, et al. Development of a multilocus sequence typing scheme for characterization of clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:4382–4390. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.9.4382-4390.2005. PubMed DOI PMC

Bala A, Uhlin BE, Karah N. Insights into the genetic contexts of sulfonamide resistance among early clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii. Infect Genet Evol. 2023;112:105444. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2023.105444. PubMed DOI

Stuart CA, Formal S, McGANN V. Further studies on B5W, an anaerogenic group in the Enterobacteriaceae. J Infect Dis. 1949;84:235–239. doi: 10.1093/infdis/84.3.235. PubMed DOI

Clemesha WW. The Bacteriology of Surface Waters in the Tropics. London, E. & F. N. Spon, Limited: Thacker, Spink & Company; 1912.

Parr LW, Galbraith TW. Occurrence of organisms resembling pathogenic members of the colon typhoid group in long stored feces. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1937;37:58–59. doi: 10.3181/00379727-37-9454P. DOI

Ferguson WW, Roberts LF. A bacteriological and serological study of organism B5W (Bacterium antiratum) J Bacteriol. 1950;59:171–183. doi: 10.1128/jb.59.2.171-183.1950. PubMed DOI PMC

Sahl JW, Gillece JD, Schupp JM, Waddell VG, Driebe EM, et al. Evolution of a pathogen: a comparative genomics analysis identifies a genetic pathway to pathogenesis in Acinetobacter. PLoS One. 2013;8:e54287. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054287. PubMed DOI PMC

Kozyreva VK, Truong CL, Greninger AL, Crandall J, Mukhopadhyay R, et al. Validation and implementation of clinical laboratory improvements act-compliant whole-genome sequencing in the public health microbiology laboratory. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55:2502–2520. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00361-17. PubMed DOI PMC

Wiedmann-al-Ahmad M, Tichy HV, Schön G. Characterization of Acinetobacter type strains and isolates obtained from wastewater treatment plants by PCR fingerprinting. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1994;60:4066–4071. doi: 10.1128/aem.60.11.4066-4071.1994. PubMed DOI PMC

Ewing WH. The relationship of Bacterium anitratum and members of the tribe Mimeae (DeBord) J Bacteriol. 1949;57:659. doi: 10.1128/jb.57.6.659-659.1949. PubMed DOI PMC

Piéchaud D, Piéchaud M, Second L. Studies of 26 strains of Moraxella iwoffi. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1951;80:97–99. PubMed

Baumann P, Doudoroff M, Stanier RY. Study of the Moraxella group. I. Genus Moraxella and the Neisseria catarrhalis group. J Bacteriol. 1968;95:58–73. doi: 10.1128/jb.95.1.58-73.1968. PubMed DOI PMC

Brisou J, Morichau-Beauchant R. Biochemical identity between certain strains of B. anitratum and Moraxella lwoffi. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1952;82:640–643. PubMed

Second L, Piéchaud M, Piéchaud D. Proteolytic types of Moraxella lwoffi and Moraxella glucidolytica (Bacterium anitratum) Ann Inst Pasteur. 1956;90:517–522. PubMed

Bonnin RA, Dortet L, Naas T. Acquired carbapenemase in Acinetobacter during the pre-antibiotic era. The Lancet Microbe . 2021;2:e137. doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00032-X. PubMed DOI

Périchon B, Goussard S, Walewski V, Krizova L, Cerqueira G, et al. Identification of 50 class D β-lactamases and 65 Acinetobacter-derived cephalosporinases in Acinetobacter spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:936–949. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01261-13. PubMed DOI PMC

Nemec A, Španělová P, Shestivska V, Radolfová-Křížová L, Maixnerová M, et al. Proposal for Acinetobacter higginsii sp. nov. to accommodate organisms of human clinical origin previously classified as Acinetobacter genomic species 16. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2023;73:10. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.006114. PubMed DOI

The Czeck national collection of type cultures [29-April-2024]. https://apps.szu.cz/cnctc n.d. accessed.

Rudant E, Bourlioux P, Courvalin P, Lambert T. Characterization of the aac(6′)-Ik gene of Acinetobacter sp. 6. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1994;124:49–54. doi: 10.1016/0378-1097(94)90331-X. PubMed DOI

Rudant E, Bouvet P, Courvalin P, Lambert T. Phylogenetic analysis of proteolytic Acinetobacter strains based on the sequence of genes encoding aminoglycoside 6’-N-acetyltransferases. Syst Appl Microbiol. 1999;22:59–67. doi: 10.1016/S0723-2020(99)80028-9. PubMed DOI

Brisou J. Essay on the system of the genus Achromobacter. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1953;84:812–814. PubMed

Birsou J, Morichau-Beauchant J, Gimenez J. Mimeae and short forms of bacteria. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1953;84:814–816. PubMed

Floch H. Comparative study of the genera Moraxella, Achromobacter and Alcaligenes. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1953;85:675–679. PubMed

Lemoigne M, Girard H, Jacobelli G. Soil bacteria easily utilizing 2-3, butanediol. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1952;82:389–398. PubMed

Enjalbert L, Brisou J, Kambou AK. Isolation of an urease-positive Acinetobacter group in man. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1959;97:112–115. PubMed

Stenzel W, Mannheim W. On the classification and nomenclature of some nonmotile and coccoid diplobacteria, exhibiting the properties of Achromobacteriaceae. Intern Bull Bacteriol Nom Tax. 1963;13:195–200. doi: 10.1099/0096266X-13-4-195. DOI

Ashley DJB, Kwantes W. Four cases of human infection with Achromobacter anitratus. J Clin Pathol. 1961;14:670–673. doi: 10.1136/jcp.14.6.670. PubMed DOI PMC

Elston HR, Hoffman KC. Identification and clinical significance of Achromobacter (Herellea) anitratus in urinary tract infections. Am J Med Sci. 1966;251:75–80. doi: 10.1097/00000441-196601000-00013. PubMed DOI

Osbaldiston GW, Vestweber J. Isolation of Achromobacter anitratus from cerebrospinal fluid of a calf. Vet Med Small Anim Clin. 1970;65:482–486. PubMed

Stockwell BA, Whitaker AN, Cheong M. Fatal Achromobacter anitratus pneumonia with bacteriaemia and neutropeni. Med J Aust. 1964;2:370–373. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb115835.x. PubMed DOI

Brisou J. Contribution to the study of Pseudomonadaceae; taxonomic details on the genus Acinetobacter. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1957;92:134–137. PubMed

Klinge K. On the systematics of gram-negative, pleomorphic, carbohydrate-non-cleaving and oxidase-negative diplobacteria. Arch Hyg Bakteriol. 1958;142:171–179. PubMed

Klinge K. On the systematology of Bacterium anitratum, Diplococcus mucosus and Moraxella lwoffi. (genus Acinetobacter according to Brisou and Prevot) Arch Hyg Bakteriol. 1959;143:587–606. PubMed

Courtieu AL, Chassignol S, Longeray C. Bacteriological characteristics of 214 strains of Moraxella lwoffi and M. glucidolytica (Acinetobacter) Ann Inst Pasteur. 1961;100(6)Suppl:116–122. PubMed

Henriksen SD. Moraxella: some problems of taxonomy and nomenclature. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 1960;10:23–28. doi: 10.1099/0096266X-10-1-23. DOI

UK Health Security Agency Culture collections. [29-April-2024]. https://www.culturecollections.org.uk/ n.d. accessed.

Gilardi GL. Evaluation of media for differentiating nonfermenting gram-negative bacteria of medical significance. Appl Microbiol. 1969;18:355–359. doi: 10.1128/am.18.3.355-359.1969. PubMed DOI PMC

Johnson R, Sneath PHA. Taxonomy of Bordetella and related organisms of the families Achromobacteraceae, Brucellaeae and Neisseriaceae. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1973;23:381–404. doi: 10.1099/00207713-23-4-381. DOI

Pintér M, Bende I. Computer analysis of Acinetobacter iwoffi (Moraxella iwoffii) and Acinetobacter anitratus (Moraxella glucidolytica) strains. J Gen Microbiol. 1967;46:267–272. doi: 10.1099/00221287-46-2-267. PubMed DOI

Lessel EF. International Committee on Nomenclature of Bacteria – Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Moraxella and allied bacteria. Minutes of the meeting, 11 August 1970. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1971;21:213–214. doi: 10.1099/00207713-21-2-213. DOI

Buchanan RE, Gibbons N., editors. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 8th ed. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company; 1974.

Von Lingelsheim W. The bacteriological work of the Royal Hygienic Station in Beuthen O.-Schl. during the stiff neck epidemic in Upper Silesia in the winter of 1904/05. Klin Jahrb. 1906;15:373–489.

Seeliger H. Systematology of Bacterium anitratum (Schaub and Hauber) Zentralbl Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infektionskr Hyg. 1953;159:173–176. PubMed

Mannheim W, Stenzel W. On the systematics of obligate aerobic gram-negative diplobacteria of humans. Zbl Bakt I Orig. 1962;186:55.

Veron M, Thibault P, Second L. Neisseria mucosa (Diplococcus mucosus Lingelsheim). I. Bacteriological description and study of its pathogenicity. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1959;97:497–510. PubMed

Brodie J, Henderson A. Mima polymorpha infection. J Clin Pathol. 1963;16:49–52. doi: 10.1136/jcp.16.1.49. PubMed DOI PMC

Brodie J, Henderson A. Further observations on Mima polymorpha and Achromobacter (Bacterium) anitratum. J Clin Pathol. 1964;17:513–516. doi: 10.1136/jcp.17.5.513. PubMed DOI PMC

Henderson A. The urease activity of Acinetobacter lwoffii and A. anitratus. J gen Microbiol. 1967;46:399–406. doi: 10.1099/00221287-46-3-399. DOI

Chan JZ-M, Halachev MR, Loman NJ, Constantinidou C, Pallen MJ. Defining bacterial species in the genomic era: insights from the genus Acinetobacter. BMC Microbiol. 2012;12:302. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-12-302. PubMed DOI PMC

Billing E. Studies on a soap tolerant organism: a new variety of Bacterium anitratum. J Gen Microbiol. 1955;13:252–260. doi: 10.1099/00221287-13-2-252. PubMed DOI

Stewart JE, Kallio RE, Stevenson DP, Jones AC, Schissler DO. Bacterial hydrocarbon oxidation. I. Oxidation of n-hexadecane by a gram-negative coccus. J Bacteriol. 1959;78:441–448. doi: 10.1128/jb.78.3.441-448.1959. PubMed DOI PMC

Finnerty WR, Hawtrey E, Kallio RE. Alkane-oxidizing micrococci. J Basic Microbiol. 1962;2:169–177. doi: 10.1002/jobm.3630020302. DOI

Taylor WH, Juni E. Pathways for biosynthesis of a bacterial capsular polysaccharide. I. Characterization of the organism and polysaccharide. J Bacteriol. 1961;81:688–693. doi: 10.1128/jb.81.5.688-693.1961. PubMed DOI PMC

Juni E, Janik A. Transformation of Acinetobacter calco-aceticus (Bacterium anitratum) J Bacteriol. 1969;98:281–288. doi: 10.1128/jb.98.1.281-288.1969. PubMed DOI PMC

Barbe V, Vallenet D, Fonknechten N. Unique features revealed by the genome sequence of Acinetobacter sp. ADP1, a versatile and naturally transformation competent bacterium. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004;32:5766–5779. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkh910. PubMed DOI PMC

Metzgar D, Bacher JM, Pezo V, Reader J, Döring V, et al. Acinetobacter sp. ADP1: an ideal model organism for genetic analysis and genome engineering. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004;32:5780–5790. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkh881. PubMed DOI PMC

Patel RN, Mazumdar S, Ornston LN. Beta-ketoadipate enol-lactone hydrolases I and II from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. J Biol Chem. 1975;250:6567–6577. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)41104-6. PubMed DOI

Cary SG, Lindberg RB, Faber JE., Jr Slide agglutination technique for the rapid differentiation of Mima polymorpha and Herellea from the Neisseriae. J Bacteriol. 1958;75:43–45. doi: 10.1128/jb.75.1.43-45.1958. PubMed DOI PMC

Kambou AK. Université de Toulouse; 1959. Achromobactereae in human clinic: Study of 45 strains.

Lautrop H. Bacterium anitratum transferred to the genus Cytophaga. Intl Bull Bact Nomen Taxon Ll. 1961;11:107–108. doi: 10.1099/0096266X-11-3-107. PubMed DOI

Seeliger HPR, Schubert RHW, Schlieber E. Transfer of Bacterium anitratum Schaub and Hauber 1948 to the genus Lingelsheimia gen. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1968;18:21–32. doi: 10.1099/00207713-18-1-21. DOI

Lwoff A. Remarks on Moraxella. Ann Inst Pasteur. 1964;106:483–484. PubMed

Mitchell PD, Burrell RG. Serology of the Mima-Herellea group and the genus Moraxella. J Bacteriol. 1964;87:900–909. doi: 10.1128/jb.87.4.900-909.1964. PubMed DOI PMC

Schuldberg II. Clinical and pathologic simulation of meningococcic meningitis; report of a case with necropsy. Am J Clin Pathol. 1953;23:1024–1027. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/23.10.1024. PubMed DOI

Parnas J, Lorkiewicz Z. Shigella equirulis and Bacterium anitratum (parashigellosis of foals) Med Weter. 1950;6:280–284. PubMed

Ellis EM. The recovery of Bacterium anitraum (B5w) from animals. Am J Vet Res. 1961;22:610–613. PubMed

Rainey FA, Lang E, Stackebrandt E. The phylogenetic structure of the genus Acinetobacter. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1994;124:349–353. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1994.tb07307.x. PubMed DOI

Nemec A, Radolfova-Krizova L, Maixnerova M, Sedo O. Acinetobacter colistiniresistens sp. nov. (formerly genomic species 13 sensu Bouvet and Jeanjean and genomic species 14 sensu Tjernberg and Ursing), isolated from human infections and characterized by intrinsic resistance to polymyxins. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2017;67:2134–2141. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.001903. PubMed DOI

Castro-Jaimes S, Bello-López E, Velázquez-Acosta C, Volkow-Fernández P, Lozano-Zarain P, et al. Chromosome architecture and gene content of the emergent pathogen Acinetobacter haemolyticus. Front Microbiol. 2020;11:926. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00926. PubMed DOI PMC

Marcus BB, Samuels SB, Pittman B, Cherry WB. A serologic study of Herellea vaginicola and its identification by immunofluorescent staining. Am J Clin Pathol. 1969;52:309–319. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/52.3.309. PubMed DOI

Farrow JM, III, Pesci EC, Slade DJ. Genome sequences for two Acinetobacter baumannii strains obtained using the unicycler hybrid assembly pipeline. Microbiol Resour Announc . 2021;10:e00017–21. doi: 10.1128/MRA.00017-21. PubMed DOI PMC

Maiztegui JI, Biegeleisen JZ, Jr, Cherry WB, Kass EH. Bacteremia due to gram-negative rods — a clinical, bacteriologic, serologic and immunofluorescent study. N Engl J Med. 1965;272:222–229. doi: 10.1056/NEJM196502042720502. PubMed DOI

Nelson JD, Shelton S. Cultural, biochemical, and immunological properties of Mima, Herellea, and Flavobacterium species. Appl Microbiol. 1965;13:801–807. doi: 10.1128/am.13.5.801-807.1965. PubMed DOI PMC

Blouse L, Twarog R. Properties of four Herellea phages. Can J Microbiol. 1966;12:1023–1030. doi: 10.1139/m66-137. PubMed DOI

Bouvet PJM, Jeanjean S. Delineation of new proteolytic genomic species in the genus Acinetobacter. Res Microbiol. 1989;140:291–299. doi: 10.1016/0923-2508(89)90021-1. PubMed DOI

Yamamoto S, Bouvet PJM, Harayama S. Phylogenetic structures of the genus Acinetobacter based on gyrB sequences: comparison with the grouping by DNA-DNA hybridization. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1999;49:87–95. doi: 10.1099/00207713-49-1-87. PubMed DOI

Kinney RW, Werkman CH. Brevibacterium leucinophagum spec. nov. Int Bull Bacteriol Nomen Taxon. 1960;10:213–217. doi: 10.1099/0096266X-10-3-213. DOI

Jones D, Weitzman PDJ. Reclassification of Brevibacterium leucinophagum Kinney and Werkman as a Gram-negative organism, probably in the genus Acinetobacter. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 1974;24:113–117. doi: 10.1099/00207713-24-1-113. DOI

Bouvet PJ, Jeanjean S, Vieu JF, Dijkshoorn L. Species, biotype, and bacteriophage type determinations compared with cell envelope protein profiles for typing Acinetobacter strains. J Clin Microbiol. 1990;28:170–176. doi: 10.1128/jcm.28.2.170-176.1990. PubMed DOI PMC

Claus D, Walker N. The decomposition of toluene by soil bacteria. J Gen Microbiol. 1964;36:107–122. doi: 10.1099/00221287-36-1-107. PubMed DOI

Descriptive catalogue of IFO bacterial collection 3. IFO Res Commun. 1977;8:95–103.

Nemec A, Radolfova-Krizova L, Maixnerova M, Vrestiakova E, Jezek P, et al. Taxonomy of haemolytic and/or proteolytic strains of the genus Acinetobacter with the proposal of Acinetobacter courvalinii sp. nov. (genomic species 14 sensu Bouvet & Jeanjean), Acinetobacter dispersus sp. nov. (genomic species 17), Acinetobacter modestus sp. nov., Acinetobacter proteolyticus sp. nov. and Acinetobacter vivianii sp. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2016;66:1673–1685. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.000932. PubMed DOI

CBS and NCCB collections, and databases [29-April-2024]. https://wi.knaw.nl/Collection n.d. accessed.

Daly AK, Postic B, Kass EH. Infections due to organisms of the genus Herellea. B5W and B. anitratum. Arch Intern Med . 1962;110:580–591. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1962.03620230026006. PubMed DOI

Gardner P, Griffin WB, Swartz MN, Kunz LJ. Nonfermentative gram-negative bacilli of nosocomial interest. Am J Med. 1970;48:735–749. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(70)80009-2. PubMed DOI

Graber CD, Rabin ER, Mason AD, Jr, Vogel EH., Jr Increasing incidence of nosocomial Herellea vaginicola infections in burned patients. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1962;114:109–112. PubMed

Inclan AP, Massey LC, Crook BG, Bell JS. Organisms of the tribe Mimeae: incidence of isolation and clinical correlation at the City of Memphis Hospitals. South Med J. 1965;58:1261–1266. PubMed

Green GS, Johnson RH, Jr, Shively JA. Mimeae: opportunistic pathogens. A review of infections in a cancer hospital. JAMA. 1965;194:1065–1068. doi: 10.1001/jama.194.10.1065. PubMed DOI

Reinarz JA, Pierce AK, Mays BB, Sanford JP. The potential role of inhalation therapy equipment in nosocomial pulmonary infection. J Clin Invest. 1965;44:831–839. doi: 10.1172/JCI105195. PubMed DOI PMC

Lasarte-Monterrubio C, Guijarro-Sánchez P, Alonso-Garcia I, Outeda M, Maceiras R, et al. Epidemiology, resistance genomics and susceptibility of Acinetobacter species: results from the 2020 Spanish nationwide surveillance study. Euro Surveill. 2024;29:2300352. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2024.29.15.2300352. PubMed DOI PMC

Darby EM, Moran RA, Holden E, Morris T, Harrison F, et al. Differential development of antibiotic resistance and virulence between Acinetobacter species. mSphere. 2024;9:e0010924. doi: 10.1128/msphere.00109-24. PubMed DOI PMC