Elevational gradients affect the production of plant secondary metabolites through changes in both biotic and abiotic conditions. Previous studies have suggested both elevational increases and decreases in host-plant chemical defences. We analysed the correlation of alkaloids and polyphenols with elevation in a community of nine Ficus species along a continuously forested elevational gradient in Papua New Guinea. We sampled 204 insect species feeding on the leaves of these hosts and correlated their community structure to the focal compounds. Additionally, we explored species richness of folivorous mammals along the gradient. When we accounted for Ficus species identity, we found a general elevational increase in flavonoids and alkaloids. Elevational trends in non-flavonol polyphenols were less pronounced or showed non-linear correlations with elevation. Polyphenols responded more strongly to changes in temperature and humidity than alkaloids. The abundance of insect herbivores decreased with elevation, while the species richness of folivorous mammals showed an elevational increase. Insect community structure was affected mainly by alkaloid concentration and diversity. Although our results show an elevational increase in several groups of metabolites, the drivers behind these trends likely differ. Flavonoids may provide figs with protection against abiotic stressors. In contrast, alkaloids affect insect herbivores and may provide protection against mammalian herbivores and pathogens. Concurrent analysis of multiple compound groups alongside ecological data is an important approach for understanding the selective landscape that shapes plant defences.
- MeSH
- Alkaloids metabolism MeSH
- Herbivory * MeSH
- Pheromones analysis MeSH
- Ficus chemistry MeSH
- Flavonoids metabolism MeSH
- Insecta physiology MeSH
- Plant Leaves chemistry MeSH
- Altitude * MeSH
- Food Chain * MeSH
- Mammals physiology MeSH
- Biota MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Geographicals
- Papua New Guinea MeSH
Even though speciation involving multiple interacting partners, such as plants and their pollinators, has attracted much research, most studies focus on isolated phases of the process. This currently precludes an integrated understanding of the mechanisms leading to cospeciation. Here, we examine population genetic structure across six species-pairs of figs and their pollinating wasps along an elevational gradient in New Guinea. Specifically, we test three hypotheses on the genetic structure within the examined species-pairs and find that the hypothesized genetic structures represent different phases of a single continuum, from incipient cospeciation to the full formation of new species. Our results also illuminate the mechanisms governing cospeciation, namely that fig wasps tend to accumulate population genetic differences faster than their figs, which initially decouples the speciation dynamics between the two interacting partners and breaks down their one-to-one matching. This intermediate phase is followed by genetic divergence of both partners, which may eventually restore the one-to-one matching among the fully formed species. Together, these findings integrate current knowledge on the mechanisms operating during different phases of the cospeciation process. They also reveal that the increasingly reported breakdowns in one-to-one matching may be an inherent part of the cospeciation process. Mechanistic understanding of this process is needed to explain how the extraordinary diversity of species, especially in the tropics, has emerged. Knowing which breakdowns in species interactions are a natural phase of cospeciation and which may endanger further generation of diversity seems critical in a constantly changing world.
Neoscytalidium (or N.) dimidiatum and N. novaehollandiae are two aggressive plant pathogenic species that affect several agricultural crops. Early detection and identification of these fungi are of critical importance to bring about the effective minimization to the threat they pose to the infected plants. Herein, two species of Neoscytalidium were rapidly discriminated by utilizing the rRNA internal transcribed (ITS4-5.8S-ITS5) PCR primers. A total of 100 isolates of Neoscytalidium species, which were isolated from Iraqi canker-infected fig trees, were included in this study. Two discrete electrophoretic PCR bands were observed in Neoscytalidium isolates-A-variants were about 546 bp, while B-variants were about 993 bp in length. The comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of both DNA variants revealed that A-variants resided between N. novaehollandiae and N. hyalinum, while B-variants were closely related to N. dimidiatum. Furthermore, the highly specific re-constructed tree of both electrophoretic variants demonstrated that B-variants share a high similarity with N. novaehollandiae. Additionally, the secondary structures for both variants were predicted computationally to reveal the structural patterns that each variant follows. In conclusion, a small rRNA locus comprising 22 nucleotides that differs in the two variants is potentially responsible for this species-specific classification. The main divergence in the amplified loci led to the classification of these fungal variants into two main species, namely N. dimidiatum and N. novaehollandiae, demonstrating that the amplification by ITS4-ITS5 rRNA fragment is a beneficial strategy that can be employed for the assessment of Neoscytalidium diversity in the natural ecosystems.
- MeSH
- Ascomycota classification genetics isolation & purification MeSH
- DNA, Fungal genetics MeSH
- Species Specificity MeSH
- Electrophoresis, Agar Gel * MeSH
- Ficus microbiology MeSH
- Phylogeny MeSH
- Genetic Variation * MeSH
- DNA, Ribosomal Spacer chemistry genetics MeSH
- Plant Diseases microbiology MeSH
- Polymerase Chain Reaction MeSH
- RNA, Ribosomal, 5.8S chemistry genetics MeSH
- Sequence Analysis, DNA MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
Tento článek pojednává o antických léčivech k léčbě různých onemocnění, se kterými se můžeme setkat v biblických textech kanonických a deuterokanonických knih Starého a Nového zákona. Ačkoliv se biblické texty, na rozdíl od textů posvátných knih jiných náboženství, prakticky nezabývají léčivými prostředky, obsahují řadu zajímavých kazuistik. U těchto uvedených příkladů je nápadné především to, že na rozdíl od například Ájurvédy, taoismu nebo primitivního šamanismu zde není daným substancím přisuzován duchovní význam. Je to způsobeno tím, že celá judeo‑křesťanská filozofie nezbožšťuje přírodu a hmotě není přisuzován žádný okultní význam kromě její stvořené existence a vnitřního řadu.
This article discusses the ancient drugs for the treatment of various diseases that can be found in the biblical texts of the canonical and deuterocanonical books of the Old and New Testaments. Although the biblical texts – in opposite to sacred books of other religions – are practically not concerned with medicinal products, they contain a number of interesting case reports. What is particularly striking about these examples is that – unlike, for example, Ayurveda, Taoism or primitive shamanism – there is no spiritual significance attributed to these substances. Reason is, that in Jude-Christian philosophy does not exist spiritualization of the nature and no occult meaning is attributed to matter except its created existence and inner order.
- MeSH
- Balsams history pharmacology therapeutic use MeSH
- Bible * MeSH
- History, Ancient MeSH
- Ficus MeSH
- Pharmaceutical Preparations * history classification MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Linguistics MeSH
- Mandragora MeSH
- Olive Oil analysis history pharmacology therapeutic use MeSH
- Wine analysis history MeSH
- Bile MeSH
- Check Tag
- History, Ancient MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Publication type
- Historical Article MeSH
Escalation (macroevolutionary increase) or divergence (disparity between relatives) in trait values are two frequent outcomes of the plant-herbivore arms race. We studied the defences and caterpillars associated with 21 sympatric New Guinean figs. Herbivore generalists were concentrated on hosts with low protease and oxidative activity. The distribution of specialists correlated with phylogeny, protease and trichomes. Additionally, highly specialised Asota moths used alkaloid rich plants. The evolution of proteases was conserved, alkaloid diversity has escalated across the studied species, oxidative activity has escalated within one clade, and trichomes have diverged across the phylogeny. Herbivore specificity correlated with their response to host defences: escalating traits largely affected generalists and divergent traits specialists; but the effect of escalating traits on extreme specialists was positive. In turn, the evolution of defences in Ficus can be driven towards both escalation and divergence in individual traits, in combination providing protection against a broad spectrum of herbivores.
BACKGROUND: Localised patterns of species diversity can be influenced by many factors, including regional species pools, biogeographic features and interspecific interactions. Despite recognition of these issues, we still know surprisingly little about how invertebrate biodiversity is structured across geographic scales. In particular, there have been few studies of how insect communities vary geographically while using the same plant host. We compared the composition (species, genera) and functional structure (guilds) of the chalcid wasp communities associated with the widespread fig tree, Ficus benjamina, towards the northern (Hainan province, China) and southern (Queensland, Australia) edges of its natural range. Sequence data were generated for nuclear and mtDNA markers and used to delimit species, and Bayesian divergence analyses were used to test patterns of community cohesion through evolutionary time. RESULTS: Both communities host at least 14 fig wasp species, but no species are shared across continents. Community composition is similar at the genus level, with six genera shared although some differ in species diversity between China and Australia; a further three genera occur in only China or Australia. Community functional structure remains very similar in terms of numbers of species in each ecological guild despite community composition differing a little (genera) or a lot (species), depending on taxonomic level. Bayesian clustering analyses favour a single community divergence event across continents over multiple events for different ecological guilds. Molecular dating estimates of lineage splits between nearest inter-continental species pairs are broadly consistent with a scenario of synchronous community divergence from a shared "ancestral community". CONCLUSIONS: Fig wasp community structure and genus-level composition are largely conserved in a wide geographic comparison between China and Australia. Moreover, dating analyses suggest that the functional community structure has remained stable for long periods during historic range expansions. This suggests that ecological interactions between species may play a persistent role in shaping these communities, in contrast to findings in some comparable temperate systems.
- MeSH
- Biological Evolution * MeSH
- Ficus growth & development MeSH
- Phylogeny MeSH
- Insect Proteins analysis MeSH
- DNA, Ribosomal Spacer analysis MeSH
- Food Chain * MeSH
- Electron Transport Complex IV analysis MeSH
- Sequence Analysis, DNA MeSH
- Biota * MeSH
- Wasps genetics physiology MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
- Geographicals
- Australia MeSH
- China MeSH
Much of the world's insect and plant biodiversity is found in tropical and subtropical 'hotspots', which often include long elevational gradients. These gradients may function as 'diversity pumps' and contribute to both regional and local species richness. Climactic conditions on such gradients often change rapidly along short vertical distances and may result in local adaptation and high levels of population genetic structure in plants and insects. We investigated the population genetic structure of two species of Ficus (Moraceae) along a continuously forested elevational gradient in Papua New Guinea. This speciose plant genus is pollinated by tiny, species-specific and highly coevolved chalcid wasps (Agaonidae) and represented by at least 73 species at our study gradient. We present results from two species of Ficus sampled from six elevations between 200 m and 2700 m a.s.l. (almost the entire elevational range of the genus) and 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci. These results show that strong barriers to gene flow exist between 1200 m and 1700 m a.s.l. Whereas lowland populations are panmictic across distances over 70 km, montane populations can be disjunct over 4 km, despite continuous forest cover. We suggest that the limited gene flow between populations of these two species of montane Ficus may be driven by environmental limitations on pollinator or seed dispersal in combination with local adaptation of Ficus populations. Such a mechanism may have wider implications for plant and pollinator speciation across long and continuously forested elevational gradients if generalist insect pollinators and vertebrate seed dispersers also form populations based on elevation.
- MeSH
- Biodiversity * MeSH
- Ficus * MeSH
- Pollination MeSH
- Wasps MeSH
- Gene Flow * MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Geographicals
- Papua New Guinea MeSH
Ecological theory predicts that communities using the same resources should have similar structure, but evolutionary constraints on colonisation and niche shifts may hamper such convergence. Multitrophic communities of wasps exploiting fig fruits, which first evolved about 75MYA, do not show long-term 'inheritance' of taxonomic (lineage) composition or species diversity. However, communities on three continents have converged ecologically in the presence and relative abundance of five insect guilds that we define. Some taxa fill the same niches in each community (phylogenetic niche conservatism). However, we show that overall convergence in ecological community structure depends also on a combination of niche shifts by resident lineages and local colonisations of figs by other insect lineages. Our study explores new ground, and develops new heuristic tools, in combining ecology and phylogeny to address patterns in the complex multitrophic communities of insect on plants, which comprise a large part of terrestrial biodiversity.
- MeSH
- Biodiversity * MeSH
- Biological Evolution * MeSH
- Ecosystem MeSH
- Ficus MeSH
- Phylogeny * MeSH
- Cluster Analysis MeSH
- Wasps classification MeSH
- Models, Theoretical MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Letter MeSH
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
- Geographicals
- Africa MeSH
- Australia MeSH
- South America MeSH
Geosmithia fungi are little known symbionts of bark beetles. Secondary metabolites of lilac colored species G. lavendula and other nine Geosmithia species were investigated in order to elucidate their possible role in the interactions of the fungi with environment. Hydroxylated anthraquinones (yellow, orange, and red pigments), were found to be the most abundant compounds produced into the medium during the submerged cultivation. Three main compounds were identified as 1,3,6,8-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone (1), rhodolamprometrin (1-acetyl-2,4,5,7-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone; 2), and 1-acetyl-2,4,5,7,8-pentahydroxyanthraquinone (3). Compounds 2 and 3 (representing the majority of produced metabolites) inhibited the growth of G+-bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis with minimum inhibitory concentration of 64-512 microg/mL. Anti-inflammatory activity detected as inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 was found only for compound 3 at 1 and 10 microg/mL. Compound 2 interfered with the morphology, compound 3 with cell-cycle dynamics of adherent mammalian cell lines.
- MeSH
- Anthraquinones pharmacology chemistry metabolism MeSH
- Anti-Bacterial Agents pharmacology chemistry metabolism MeSH
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal pharmacology chemistry metabolism MeSH
- Bacillus subtilis drug effects MeSH
- Pigments, Biological pharmacology chemistry metabolism MeSH
- Biotechnology methods MeSH
- Cell Cycle drug effects MeSH
- Ficus parasitology MeSH
- Financing, Organized MeSH
- HeLa Cells MeSH
- Hydroxylation MeSH
- Hypocreales metabolism growth & development MeSH
- Cyclooxygenase Inhibitors pharmacology chemistry metabolism MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Weevils physiology microbiology MeSH
- Spores, Fungal metabolism growth & development MeSH
- Staphylococcus aureus drug effects MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Humans MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Keywords
- Fucus religiosa,
- MeSH
- Pharmacopoeias, Homeopathic as Topic MeSH
- Ficus MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Religion and Psychology MeSH
- Muscle Cramp diagnosis psychology therapy MeSH
- Check Tag
- Humans MeSH
- Male MeSH
- Publication type
- Case Reports MeSH
