The effect of practice schedule on retention and transfer has been studied since the first publication on contextual interference (CI) in 1966. However, strongly advocated by scientists and practitioners, the CI effect also aroused some doubts. Therefore, our objective was to review the existing literature on CI and to determine how it affects retention in motor learning. We found 1255 articles in the following databases: Scopus, EBSCO, Web of Science, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, supplemented by the Google Scholar search engine. We screened full texts of 294 studies, of which 54 were included in the meta-analysis. In the meta-analyses, two different models were applied, i.e., a three-level mixed model and random-effects model with averaged effect sizes from single studies. According to both analyses, high CI has a medium beneficial effect on the whole population. These effects were statistically significant. We found that the random practice schedule in laboratory settings effectively improved motor skills retention. On the contrary, in the applied setting, the beneficial effect of random practice on the retention was almost negligible. The random schedule was more beneficial for retention in older adults (large effect size) and in adults (medium effect size). In young participants, the pooled effect size was negligible and statically insignificant.
- MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Motor Skills * physiology MeSH
- Retention, Psychology physiology MeSH
- Learning * physiology MeSH
- Check Tag
- Humans MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Meta-Analysis MeSH
- Systematic Review MeSH
The present study addresses the main contention of the Noticing Hypothesis that conscious attention is necessary for successful learning. Arguments are given against the strong version of the hypothesis, under which one cannot acquire new language forms without conscious attention. Foreign learners were tested on their familiarity with formulaic expressions especially selected for their low salience. Additionally, the expressions used were tested for the likelihood of attracting attention. The results suggest that despite their inconspicuousness, such expressions are part of learners' lexical representations. Students' performance was found to correlate with usage patterns found in the input, a strong indication that their lexical representations are shaped by numerous encounters with specific uses of these expressions. It is argued that conscious attention is unlikely in even most, let alone all encounters. While the importance of awareness is not debated here, this study questions conscious attention as a default condition for learning.
- MeSH
- Language * MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Attention * physiology MeSH
- Recognition, Psychology physiology MeSH
- Learning physiology MeSH
- Awareness physiology MeSH
- Check Tag
- Humans MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Male MeSH
- Female MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
Research has shown that external relative to internal focus (IF) instructions may improve motor performance as well as cognitive function (e.g., attentional stability and task-focus). The aim of the study was to examine the influence of attentional focus instructions on skill acquisition and learning of an aiming task in individuals with hearing impairments. The participants (N = 39, Mage = 17.87 ± 1.88 years) performed a bowling task with their dominant hand to knock down as many pins as possible. On day 1, they were randomly divided into three attentional focus groups; IF (focus on your throwing hand), external focus (EF) (focus on the pins), and control (no-focus) instructions. Each participant performed 36 trials, divided into 3 blocks of 12 trials. Attentional focus instructions were given before each block, with a brief reminder provided after each 3 trials. On day 2, retention and transfer (further distance) tests were performed. Results showed that while there were no significant differences between groups in the pre-test, the EF group outperformed both IF and control groups in retention and transfer tests. No significant difference was found between the control and IF. The findings suggest that the advantages of the external relative to the IF and no-focus instructions may generalize to individuals with hearing impairments.
- MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Adolescent MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Motor Skills * physiology MeSH
- Attention * MeSH
- Learning physiology MeSH
- Check Tag
- Humans MeSH
- Adolescent MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Male MeSH
- Female MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Randomized Controlled Trial MeSH
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the best approaches to teaching a foreign language to older people to help them achieve the desired results and explore their benefits. This review strictly follows the PRISMA methodology for systematic reviews and meta-analyses to identify the core experimental studies that deal with the topic of foreign language learning approaches among the older generations. Altogether eight studies detected were included in the systematic review. The available sources were found in Web of Science and Scopus. The findings indicate that foreign language learning can promote seniors' welfare and successful aging despite their learning outcomes, which means that the key benefit for third-age foreign language learners while learning a foreign language is not the achieved proficiency level, but the feeling of subjective satisfaction. This can be a good incentive to achieve better learning outcomes, provided that learners have been offered a pleasant and safe learning environment, using suitable learning approaches during which they can build on their acquired knowledge and experience, as well as discuss the topics they are interested in. Thus, foreign language teachers play an important part in seniors' educational process because their teaching methods and materials when adapted to the elderly's educational needs can have a positive impact on the maintenance and possibly, enhancement of the older people's cognitive functions and on the improvement of their mental activity, which consequently maintains their healthy aging.
- MeSH
- Language MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Multilingualism * MeSH
- Aged MeSH
- Learning * physiology MeSH
- Healthy Aging * physiology MeSH
- Check Tag
- Humans MeSH
- Aged MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Systematic Review MeSH
We used two-photon calcium imaging with single-cell and cell-type resolution. Fear conditioning induced heterogeneous tuning shifts at single-cell level in the auditory cortex, with shifts both to CS+ frequency and to the control CS- stimulus frequency. We thus extend the view of simple expansion of CS+ tuned regions. Instead of conventional freezing reactions only, we observe selective orienting responses towards the conditioned stimuli. The orienting responses were often followed by escape behavior.
- MeSH
- Acoustic Stimulation MeSH
- Behavior, Animal MeSH
- Electroshock MeSH
- Interneurons physiology MeSH
- Conditioning, Classical physiology MeSH
- Mice, Inbred C57BL MeSH
- Mice MeSH
- Neuronal Plasticity physiology MeSH
- Auditory Cortex physiology MeSH
- Fear psychology MeSH
- Learning physiology MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Check Tag
- Male MeSH
- Mice MeSH
- Animals MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
Introduction: The Brief Visual Memory Test-Revised (BVMT-R) is a frequently used visuospatial declarative memory test, but normative data in the Czech population are lacking. Moreover, the BVMT-R includes promising learning indexes that can be used to detect learning deficits in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, its clinical usefulness has not yet been thoroughly examined. Early detection of memory impairment in PD is essential for effective treatment. Therefore, this study aimed to provide BVMT-R Czech normative data for clinical use and to find the detection potential of the principal BVMT-R scores, including new learning indices, to capture the cognitive deficit in PD. Method: The BVMT-R were administered to a normative sample of 920 participants aged 17 to 95 years and to a clinical sample of 60 PD patients; 25 with mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI) and 35 with normal cognition (PD-NC). In order to provide normative values, multiple regression analyses were employed, and to compare the clinical and control sample, Bayesian Hierarchical Linear Models were used. Results: The best model for regression-based norms showed to be with age + age2 + education + sex as predictors. From all learning indexes, L6 (sum of trials 1-3), followed by, L4 (sum of trials 1-3 multiplied by the difference between the highest and the lowest score) best differentiated between controls or PD-NC and PD-MCI. Conclusions: We provide regression-based normative values for BVMT-R that could be used in clinical settings and meta-analytic efforts. Furthermore, we revealed visuospatial learning and memory deficit in PD-MCI. We have also identified the most discriminative learning index adapted to BVMT-R.
- MeSH
- Adult MeSH
- Cognitive Dysfunction etiology physiopathology MeSH
- Middle Aged MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Adolescent MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Neuropsychological Tests standards MeSH
- Parkinson Disease complications physiopathology MeSH
- Memory Disorders etiology physiopathology MeSH
- Aged, 80 and over MeSH
- Aged MeSH
- Learning physiology MeSH
- Check Tag
- Adult MeSH
- Middle Aged MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Adolescent MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Male MeSH
- Aged, 80 and over MeSH
- Aged MeSH
- Female MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
The present research was motivated by the routine digital media practice of producing page layouts as composite images that include several unrelated pictures. We investigated whether or how visually highlighting affective and positional components of pictures in a viewer's field of vision might influence viewer perception and evaluation of the composite image. We examined combinations of visual, spatial, and affective features of cues in composite images to learn whether they affected the viewer's attentional capture of other affective information in the composite image and viewer's affective evaluations. The manipulation check of the feature combinations (positive/negative affect, presence/absence of highlighted color, central/peripheral position) showed significant effects of these features and their interactions on viewers' eye movements. On the other hand, we observed only a small effect on viewers' affective evaluations. Our results suggested that media page layout designers might manipulate the viewer's attention by visual and positional adjustments of affective components in composite images. Future researchers might use this study's design to better understand the human perception of real media images.
- MeSH
- Affect physiology MeSH
- Arousal physiology MeSH
- Adult MeSH
- Middle Aged MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Cues * MeSH
- Eye Movements physiology MeSH
- Attention physiology MeSH
- Photic Stimulation MeSH
- Learning physiology MeSH
- Visual Perception physiology MeSH
- Check Tag
- Adult MeSH
- Middle Aged MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Young Adult MeSH
- Male MeSH
- Female MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
BACKGROUND: Education and learning are the most important goals of all universities. For this purpose, lecturers use various tools to grab the attention of students and improve their learning ability. Virtual reality refers to the subjective sensory experience of being immersed in a computer-mediated world, and has recently been implemented in learning environments. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of a virtual reality condition on students' learning ability and physiological state. METHODS: Students were shown 6 sets of videos (3 videos in a two-dimensional condition and 3 videos in a three-dimensional condition), and their learning ability was analyzed based on a subsequent questionnaire. In addition, we analyzed the reaction of the brain and facial muscles of the students during both the two-dimensional and three-dimensional viewing conditions and used fractal theory to investigate their attention to the videos. RESULTS: The learning ability of students was increased in the three-dimensional condition compared to that in the two-dimensional condition. In addition, analysis of physiological signals showed that students paid more attention to the three-dimensional videos. CONCLUSIONS: A virtual reality condition has a greater effect on enhancing the learning ability of students. The analytical approach of this study can be further extended to evaluate other physiological signals of subjects in a virtual reality condition.
- MeSH
- Humans MeSH
- Students MeSH
- Learning physiology MeSH
- Virtual Reality * MeSH
- Check Tag
- Humans MeSH
- Male MeSH
- Female MeSH
- Publication type
- Journal Article MeSH
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH
Research in Artificial Intelligence (AI) has focused mostly on two extremes: either on small improvements in narrow AI domains, or on universal theoretical frameworks which are often uncomputable, or lack practical implementations. In this paper we attempt to follow a big picture view while also providing a particular theory and its implementation to present a novel, purposely simple, and interpretable hierarchical architecture. This architecture incorporates the unsupervised learning of a model of the environment, learning the influence of one's own actions, model-based reinforcement learning, hierarchical planning, and symbolic/sub-symbolic integration in general. The learned model is stored in the form of hierarchical representations which are increasingly more abstract, but can retain details when needed. We demonstrate the universality of the architecture by testing it on a series of diverse environments ranging from audio/visual compression to discrete and continuous action spaces, to learning disentangled representations.
